The relationship between wellbeing and Problematic Smartphone Use (PSU) has been explored in the past, however, the role of the potential mediators of this association is a relatively neglected area of research. Therefore, the current study examined mindfulness and self-compassion as mediators of the relationship between wellbeing and PSU in 220 university students. WHO-5 Wellbeing Index, Mindful Attention Awareness Scale- State, Self-Compassion Scale- Short form and Smartphone Addiction Scale- Short version were used for assessing wellbeing, mindfulness, self-compassion, and PSU respectively. Wellbeing had a direct and indirect effect on PSU. In addition, results supported a serial mediation model where wellbeing was found to influence PSU via mindfulness and self-compassion in a sequential manner. The results expanded the Compensatory Internet Use Theory (CIUT) to understand PSU and have implications for the management of PSU.
AlotaibiM. S.FoxM.ComanR.RatanZ. A.HosseinzadehH. (2022). Smartphone addiction prevalence and its association on academic performance, physical health, and mental well-being among university students in umm Al-qura university (UQU), Saudi Arabia. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(6), 3710. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19063710
3.
AndersonD. R.SubrahmanyamK.Cognitive Impacts of Digital Media Workgroup (2017). Digital screen media and cognitive development. Pediatrics, 140(Supplement_2), S57–S61. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2016-1758C
4.
ArpaciI. (2021). Relationships between early maladaptive schemas and smartphone addiction: The moderating role of mindfulness. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 19(3), 778–792. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-019-00186-y
5.
ArslanG. (2017). Psychological maltreatment, forgiveness, mindfulness, and internet addiction among young adults: A study of mediation effect. Computers in Human Behavior, 72, 57–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.02.037
6.
BaerR. (2015). Ethics, values, virtues, and character strengths in mindfulness-based interventions: A psychological science perspective. Mindfulness, 6(4), 956–969. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-015-0419-2
7.
BaerR. A.LykinsE. L. B.PetersJ. R. (2012). Mindfulness and self-compassion as predictors of psychological wellbeing in long-term meditators and matched nonmeditators. Journal of Positive Psychology, 7(3), 230–238. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2012.674548
8.
BaerR. A.SmithG. T.AllenK. B. (2004). Assessment of mindfulness by self-report: The Kentucky inventory of mindfulness skills. Assessment, 11(3), 191–206. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191104268029
9.
BahlS.MilneG. R.RossS. M.MickD. G.GrierS. A.ChuganiS. K.ChanS. S.GouldS.ChoY. N.DorseyJ. D.SchindlerR. M.MurdockM. R.Boesen-MarianiS. (2016). Mindfulness: Its transformative potential for consumer, societal, and environmental well-being. Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, 35(2), 198–210. https://doi.org/10.1509/jppm.15.139
10.
BarnardL. K.CurryJ. F. (2011). Self-compassion: Conceptualizations, correlates, & interventions. Review of General Psychology, 15(4), 289–303. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025754
11.
BarryC. T.WongM. Y. (2020). Fear of missing out (FoMO): A generational phenomenon or an individual difference?Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 37(12), 2952–2966. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407520945394
12.
BauerA. A.LoyL. S.MasurP. K.SchneiderF. M. (2017). Mindful instant messaging: Mindfulness and autonomous motivation as predictors of well-being in smartphone communication. Journal of Media Psychology: Theories, Methods, and Applications, 29(3), 159–165. https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-1105/a000225
13.
BayerJ. B.CampbellS. W.LingR. (2016). Connection cues: Activating the norms and habits of social connectedness. Communication Theory, 26(2), 128–149. https://doi.org/10.1111/comt.12090
14.
Bergen-CicoD.CheonS. (2013). The mediating effects of mindfulness and self-compassion on trait anxiety. Mindfulness, 5(5), 505–551. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-013-0205-y
15.
BillieuxJ.MaurageP.Lopez-FernandezO.KussD. J.GriffithsM. D. (2015). Can disordered mobile phone use be considered a behavioral addiction? An update on current evidence and a comprehensive model for future research. Current Addiction Reports, 2(2), 156–162. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40429-015-0054-y
16.
BillieuxJ.PhilippotP.SchmidC.MaurageP.De MolJ.Van der LindenM. (2015). Is dysfunctional use of the mobile phone a behavioural addiction? Confronting symptom-based versus process-based approaches. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 22(5), 460–468. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.1910
17.
BillieuxJ.SchimmentiA.KhazaalY.MaurageP.HeerenA. (2015). Are we overpathologizing everyday life? A tenable blueprint for behavioral addiction research. Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 4(3), 119–123. https://doi.org/10.1556/2006.4.2015.009
18.
BishopS. R.LauM.ShapiroS.CarlsonL.AndersonN. D.CarmodyJ.SegalZ. V.AbbeyS.SpecaM.VeltingD.DevinsG. (2004). Mindfulness: A proposed operational definition. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 11(3), 230–241. https://doi.org/10.1093/clipsy.bph077
19.
BookerJ. A.DunsmoreJ. C. (2019). Testing direct and indirect ties of self-compassion with subjective well-being. Journal of Happiness Studies, 20(5), 1563–1585. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-018-0011-2
20.
BrandM.WegmannE.StarkR.MüllerA.WölflingK.RobbinsT. W.PotenzaM. N. (2019). The interaction of person-affect-cognition-execution (I-PACE) model for addictive behaviors: Update, generalization to addictive behaviors beyond internet-use disorders, and specification of the process character of addictive behaviors. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 104, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.06.032
21.
BrownK. W.RyanR. M. (2003). The benefits of being present: Mindfulness and its role in psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(4), 822–848. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.84.4.822
22.
BuschP. A.McCarthyS. (2021). Antecedents and consequences of problematic smartphone use: A systematic literature review of an emerging research area. Computers in Human Behavior, 114, 106414. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2020.106414
23.
CameriniA. L.GerosaT.MarcianoL. (2021). Predicting problematic smartphone use over time in adolescence: A latent class regression analysis of online and offline activities. New Media & Society, 23(11), 3229–3248. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444820948809
24.
CamposD.CebollaA.QueroS.Bretón-LópezJ.BotellaC.SolerJ.Garcia-CampayoJ.DemarzoM.BanosR. M.BañosR. M. (2016). Meditation and happiness: Mindfulness and self-compassion may mediate the meditation–happiness relationship. Personality and Individual Differences, 93, 80–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.08.040
25.
CarbonellX.ChamarroA.OberstU.RodrigoB.PradesM. (2018). Problematic use of the internet and smartphones in university students: 2006–2017. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15(3), 475. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15030475
26.
ChambersR.GulloneE.AllenN. B. (2009). Mindful emotion regulation: An integrative review. Clinical Psychology Review, 29(6), 560–572. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2009.06.005
27.
ChanM. (2018). Mobile-mediated multimodal communications, relationship quality and subjective well-being: An analysis of smartphone use from a life course perspective. Computers in Human Behavior, 87, 254–262. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.05.027
ChenB.LiuF.DingS.YingX.WangL.WenY. (2017). Gender differences in factors associated with smartphone addiction: A cross-sectional study among medical college students. BMC Psychiatry, 17(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-017-1503-z
30.
ChenC.ZhangK. Z.GongX.ZhaoS. J.LeeM. K.LiangL. (2017). Understanding compulsive smartphone use: An empirical test of a flow-based model. International Journal of Information Management, 37(5), 438–454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2017.04.009
31.
ChengS. S.ZhangC. Q.WuJ. Q. (2020). Mindfulness and smartphone addiction before going to sleep among college students: The mediating roles of self-control and rumination. Clocks & Sleep, 2(3), 354–363. https://doi.org/10.3390/clockssleep2030026
32.
DavidM. E.RobertsJ. A.ChristensonB. (2018). Too much of a good thing: Investigating the association between actual smartphone use and individual well-being. International Journal of Human–Computer Interaction, 34(3), 265–275. https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2017.1349250
33.
DavidowW. H. (2011). Overconnected: The promise and threat of the Internet. Open Road Media.
34.
de LisleS. M.DowlingN. A.AllenJ. S. (2012). Mindfulness and problem gambling: A review of the literature. Journal of Gambling Studies, 28(4), 719–739. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10899-011-9284-7
35.
DienerE.LucasR. E.ScollonC. N. (2009). Beyond the hedonic treadmill: Revising the adaptation theory of well-being. In The science of well-being (pp. 103–118). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-2350-6_5
36.
ElhaiJ. D.LevineJ. C.O’BrienK. D.ArmourC. (2018). Distress tolerance and mindfulness mediate relations between depression and anxiety sensitivity with problematic smartphone use. Computers in Human Behavior, 84, 477–484. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.03.026
37.
ElhaiJ. D.TiamiyuM. F.WeeksJ. W. (2018). Depression and social anxiety in relation to problematic smartphone use: The prominent role of rumination. Internet Research, 28(2), 315–332. https://doi.org/10.1108/IntR-01-2017-0019
38.
ElhaiJ. D.VasquezJ. K.LustgartenS. D.LevineJ. C.HallB. J. (2018). Proneness to boredom mediates relationships between problematic smartphone use with depression and anxiety severity. Social Science Computer Review, 36(6), 707–720. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894439317741087
39.
ElhaiJ. D.YangH.FangJ.BaiX.HallB. J. (2020). Depression and anxiety symptoms are related to problematic smartphone use severity in Chinese young adults: Fear of missing out as a mediator. Addictive Behaviors, 101, 105962. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2019.04.020
40.
FalsafiN. (2016). A randomized controlled trial of mindfulness versus yoga: Effects on depression and/or anxiety in college students. Journal of the American Psychiatric Nurses Association, 22(6), 483–497. https://doi.org/10.1177/1078390316663307
41.
GangadharanN.BorleA. L.BasuS. (2022). Mobile phone addiction as an emerging behavioral form of addiction among adolescents in India. Cureus, 14(4), e23798. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.23798
42.
GarnerA. R.GilbertS. E.ShoreyR. C.GordonK. C.MooreT. M.StuartG. L. (2020). A longitudinal investigation on the relation between self-compassion and alcohol use in a treatment sample: A brief report. Substance Abuse: Research and Treatment, 14, 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1177/1178221820909356
43.
GavaliM. Y.KhismatraoD. S.GavaliY. V.PatilK. B. (2017). Smartphone, the new learning aid amongst medical students. Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research: JCDR, 11(5), JC05–JC08. https://doi.org/10.7860/JCDR/2017/20948.9826
44.
GeorgeD.MalleryP. (2003) SPSS for windows step by step: a simple guide and reference, 11.0 update. Allyn & Bacon.
45.
GermerC. (2009). The mindful path to self-compassion: Freeing yourself from destructive thoughts and emotions. Guilford Press.
46.
GriffithsM. (2005). A ‘components’ model of addiction within a biopsychosocial framework. Journal of Substance Use, 10(4), 191–197. https://doi.org/10.1080/14659890500114359
47.
GriffithsM. D. (2015). Classification and treatment of behavioural addictions. Nursing in Practice, (82), 44–46.
48.
GuJ.StraussC.BondR.CavanaghK. (2015). How do mindfulness-based cognitive therapy and mindfulness-based stress reduction improve mental health and wellbeing? A systematic review and meta-analysis of mediation studies. Clinical Psychology Review, 37, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2015.01.006
49.
HallauerC. J.RooneyE. A.BillieuxJ.HallB. J.ElhaiJ. (2022). Mindfulness mediates relations between anxiety with problematic smartphone use severity. Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace, 16(1), 4. https://doi.org/10.5817/CP2022-1-4
50.
HayesA. F. (2017). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. Guilford publications.
51.
HayesS. C.VillatteM.LevinM.HildebrandtM. (2011). Open, aware, and active: Contextual approaches as an emerging trend in the behavioral and cognitive therapies. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 7(1), 141–168. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032210-104449
52.
HeldP.OwensG. P.ThomasE. A.WhiteB. A.AndersonS. E. (2018). A pilot study of brief self-compassion training with individuals in substance use disorder treatment. Traumatology, 24(3), 219–227. https://doi.org/10.1037/trm0000146
53.
HepburnS. J.CarrollA.McCuaigL. (2021). The relationship between mindful attention awareness, perceived stress and subjective wellbeing. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(23), 12290. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182312290
54.
Hollis-WalkerL.ColosimoK. (2011). Mindfulness, self-compassion, and happiness in non-meditators: A theoretical and empirical examination. Personality and Individual Differences, 50(2), 222–227. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.09.033
55.
HölzelB. K.LazarS. W.GardT.Schuman-OlivierZ.VagoD. R.OttU. (2011). How does mindfulness meditation work? Proposing mechanisms of action from a conceptual and neural perspective. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 6(6), 537–559. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691611419671
56.
HorwoodS.AnglimJ. (2019). Problematic smartphone usage and subjective and psychological well-being. Computers in Human Behavior, 97(1), 44–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2019.02.028
57.
HughesN.BurkeJ. (2018). Sleeping with the frenemy: How restricting ‘bedroom use’ of smartphones impacts happiness and wellbeing. Computers in Human Behavior, 85, 236–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.03.047
58.
IskenderM.AkinA. (2011). Self-compassion and internet addiction. Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology-TOJET, 10(3), 215–221.
59.
IvanovaA.GorbaniukO.BłachnioA.PrzepiórkaA.MrakaN.PolishchukV.GorbaniukJ. (2020). Mobile phone addiction, phubbing, and depression among men and women: A moderated mediation analysis. Psychiatric Quarterly, 91(3), 655–668. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11126-020-09723-8
60.
JosefssonT.LarsmanP.BrobergA. G.LundhL. G. (2011). Self-reported mindfulness mediates the relation between meditation experience and psychological well-being. Mindfulness, 2(1), 49–58. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-011-0042-9
61.
Kabat-ZinnJ. (2003). Mindfulness-based interventions in context: Past, present, and future. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 10(2), 144–156. https://doi.org/10.1093/clipsy.bpg016
62.
Kabat-ZinnJ. (2013). Full catastrophe living, revised edition: How to cope with stress, pain and illness using mindfulness meditation. Hachette.
63.
Kardefelt-WintherD. (2014). A conceptual and methodological critique of internet addiction research: Towards a model of compensatory internet use. Computers in Human Behavior, 31(1), 351–354. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.10.059
64.
KarsayK.SchmuckD.MatthesJ.StevicA. (2019). Longitudinal effects of excessive smartphone use on stress and loneliness: The moderating role of self-disclosure. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 22(11), 706–713. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2019.0255
65.
KellyA. C.VimalakanthanK.MillerK. E. (2014). Self-compassion moderates the relationship between body mass index and both eating disorder pathology and body image flexibility. Body Image, 11(4), 446–453. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2014.07.005
66.
KengS.-L.SmoskiM. J.RobinsC. J.EkbladA. G.BrantleyJ. G. (2012). Mechanisms of change in mindfulness-based stress reduction: Self-compassion and mindfulness as mediators of intervention outcomes. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 26(3), 270–280. https://doi.org/10.1891/0889-8391.26.3.270
67.
KimK.MilneG. R.BahlS. (2018). Smart phone addiction and mindfulness: An intergenerational comparison. International Journal of Pharmaceutical and Healthcare Marketing, 12(1), 25–34. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJPHM-08-2016-0044
68.
KirbyJ. N.TellegenC. L.SteindlS. R. (2017). A meta-analysis of compassion-based interventions: Current state of knowledge and future directions. Behavior Therapy, 48(6), 778–792. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2017.06.003
69.
KumcagizH.GündüzY. (2016). Relationship between psychological well-being and smartphone addiction of university students. International Journal of Higher Education, 5(4), 144–156. https://doi.org/10.5430/ijhe.v5n4p144
70.
KwonM.KimD. J.ChoH.YangS. (2013). The smartphone addiction scale: Development and validation of a short version for adolescents. PloS One, 8(12), e83558. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0083558
71.
LanY.DingJ. E.LiW.LiJ.ZhangY.LiuM.FuH. (2018). A pilot study of a group mindfulness-based cognitive-behavioral intervention for smartphone addiction among university students. Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 7(4), 1171–1176. https://doi.org/10.1556/2006.7.2018.103
72.
LeiL. Y. C.IsmailM. A. A.MohammadJ. A. M.YusoffM. S. B. (2020). The relationship of smartphone addiction with psychological distress and neuroticism among university medical students. BMC Psychology, 8(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-020-00466-6
73.
LeylandA.RowseG.EmersonL.-M. (2019). Experimental effects of mindfulness inductions on self-regulation: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Emotion, 19(1), 108–122. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000425
74.
LiuQ. Q.YangX. J.HuY. T.ZhangC. Y. (2020). Peer victimization, self-compassion, gender and adolescent mobile phone addiction: Unique and interactive effects. Children and Youth Services Review, 118, 105397. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105397
75.
MacBethA.GumleyA. (2012). Exploring compassion: A meta-analysis of the association between self-compassion and psychopathology. Clinical Psychology Review, 32(6), 545–552. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2012.06.003
76.
MarcianoL.DriverC. C.SchulzP. J.DienerA. L. (2022). Dynamics of adolescents’ smartphone use and well-being are positive but ephemeral. Scientific Reports, 12(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-05291-y
77.
MarquezJ.LongE. (2021). A global decline in adolescents’ subjective well-being: A comparative study exploring patterns of change in the life satisfaction of 15-year-old students in 46 countries. Child Indicators Research, 14(3), 1251–1292. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12187-020-09788-8
78.
ModicaC. (2019). Facebook, body esteem, and body surveillance in adult women: The moderating role of self-compassion and appearance-contingent self-worth. Body Image, 29, 17–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2019.02.002
79.
MontagC.WegmannE.SariyskaR.DemetrovicsZ.BrandM. (2021). How to overcome taxonomical problems in the study of Internet use disorders and what to do with “smartphone addiction”. Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 9(4), 908–914. https://doi.org/10.1556/2006.8.2019.59
80.
MurisP.PetrocchiN. (2017). Protection or vulnerability? A meta-analysis of the relations between the positive and negative components of self-compassion and psychopathology. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 24(2), 373–383. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.2005
81.
NeffK. D. (2003a). Self-compassion: An alternative conceptualization of a healthy attitude toward oneself. Self and Identity, 2(2), 85–101. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298860309032
82.
NeffK. D. (2003b). The development and validation of a scale to measure self-compassion. Self and Identity, 2(3), 223–250. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298860309027
83.
NeffK. D.CostiganA. P. (2014). Self-compassion, wellbeing, and happiness. Psychologie in Österreich, 2(3), 114–119.
84.
NeffK. D.KirkpatrickK. L.RudeS. S. (2007). Self-compassion and adaptive psychological functioning. Journal of Research in Personality, 41(1), 139–154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2006.03.004
85.
NeffK. D.PommierE. (2013). The relationship between self-compassion and other-focused concern among college undergraduates, community adults, and practicing meditators. Self and Identity, 12(2), 160–176. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2011.649546
86.
OlsonJ. A.SandraD. A.ColucciÉ. S.Al BikaiiA.ChmoulevitchD.NahasJ.RazA.VeissiereS. P.VeissièreS. P. (2022). Smartphone addiction is increasing across the world: A meta-analysis of 24 countries. Computers in Human Behavior, 129, 107138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2021.107138
87.
OulasvirtaA.RattenburyT.MaL.RaitaE. (2012). Habits make smartphone use more pervasive. Personal and Ubiquitous Computing, 16(1), 105–114. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00779-011-0412-2
88.
OwenB.HeisterkampB.HalfmannA.VordererP. (2018). Trait mindfulness and problematic smartphone use. In GrimesD.WangQ.LinH. (Eds.), Empirical studies of contemplative practices (pp. 181–205). Nova Science Publishers.
89.
PanekE. T.BayerJ. B.Dal CinS.CampbellS. W. (2015). Automaticity, mindfulness, and self-control as predictors of dangerous texting behavior. Mobile Media & Communication, 3(3), 383–400. https://doi.org/10.1177/2050157915576046
90.
PanovaT.CarbonellX. (2018). Is smartphone addiction really an addiction?Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 7(2), 252–259. https://doi.org/10.1556/2006.7.2018.49
91.
PhelpsC. L.PaniaguaS. M.WillcocksonI. U.PotterJ. S. (2018). The relationship between self-compassion and the risk for substance use disorder. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 183, 78–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2017.10.026
92.
Pinto-GouveiaJ.DuarteC.MatosM.FráguasS. (2014). The protective role of self-compassion in relation to psychopathology symptoms and quality of life in chronic and in cancer patients. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 21(4), 311–323. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.1838
93.
PriyaD. B.SubramaniyamM. (2022). Fatigue due to smartphone use? Investigating research trends and methods for analysing fatigue caused by extensive smartphone usage: A review. Work, 72(2), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.3233/WOR-205351
94.
RadovicA.GmelinT.SteinB. D.MillerE. (2017). Depressed adolescents’ positive and negative use of social media. Journal of Adolescence, 55(1), 5–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2016.12.002
95.
RaesF.PommierE.NeffK. D.Van GuchtD. (2011). Construction and factorial validation of a short form of the self-compassion scale. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 18(3), 250–255. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.702
96.
RotondiV.StancaL.TomasuoloM. (2017). Connecting alone: Smartphone use, quality of social interactions and well-being. Journal of Economic Psychology, 63(3), 17–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2017.09.001
97.
RozgonjukD.LevineJ. C.HallB. J.ElhaiJ. D. (2018). The association between problematic smartphone use, depression and anxiety symptom severity, and objectively measured smartphone use over one week. Computers in Human Behavior, 87, 10–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.05.019
98.
RyanR. M.DeciE. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68
99.
ShahbaziJ.Khodabakhshi-KoolaeeA.DavodiH.HeidariH. (2020). Effects of mindfulness-based self-compassion and attachment-based therapy on self-criticism and mental fatigue of male adolescents with addiction potential. Journal of Client-Centered Nursing Care, 6(2), 97–108. https://doi.org/10.32598/jccnc.6.2.33.9
100.
ShahinM. A. H.HamedS. A.TahaS. M. (2021). Correlation of self-compassion and spiritual well-being with drug craving in people with substance use disorders. Middle East Current Psychiatry, 28(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1186/s43045-021-00132-6
101.
ShapiroS. L.CarlsonL. E.AstinJ. A.FreedmanB. (2006). Mechanisms of mindfulness. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 62(3), 373–386. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.20237
102.
ShoninE.Van GordonW.GriffithsM. D. (2014). The treatment of workaholism with meditation awareness training: A case study. The Journal of Science and Healing. 10(3), 193–195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.explore.2014.02.004
103.
ShoninE.Van GordonW.SladeK.GriffithsM. D. (2013). Mindfulness and other buddhist-derived interventions in correctional settings: A systematic review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 18(3), 365–372. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2013.01.002
SohnS. Y.ReesP.WildridgeB.KalkN. J.CarterB. (2019). Prevalence of problematic smartphone usage and associated mental health outcomes amongst children and young people: A systematic review, meta-analysis and GRADE of the evidence. BMC Psychiatry, 19(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-019-2350-x
106.
SriwilaiK.CharoensukmongkolP. (2016). Face it, don’t facebook it: Impacts of social media addiction on mindfulness, coping strategies and the consequence on emotional exhaustion. Stress and Health, 32(4), 427–434. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2637
107.
StaehrJ. K. (1998). The use of well-being measures in primary health care-the DepCare project. In Regional office for Europe: Well-being measures in primary health care-the DepCare project. World Health Organization.
108.
StarcevicV.KingD. L.DelfabbroP. H.SchimmentiA.Castro-CalvoJ.GiardinaA.BillieuxJ. (2021). Diagnostic inflation” will not resolve taxonomical problems in the study of addictive online behaviours. Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 9(4), 915–919. https://doi.org/10.1556/2006.2020.00083
109.
TangY. Y.TangR.GrossJ. J. (2019). Promoting psychological well-being through an evidence-based mindfulness training program. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 13, 237. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2019.00237
110.
TangmunkongvorakulA.MusumariP. M.ThongpibulK.SrithanaviboonchaiK.TechasrivichienT.SuguimotoS. P.Ono-KiharaM.KiharaM. (2019). Association of excessive smartphone use with psychological well-being among university students in Chiang Mai, Thailand. PloS one, 14(1), e0210294. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0210294
111.
TurkleS. (2016). Reclaiming conversation: The power of talk in a digital age. Penguin.
112.
TurkleS. (2017). Alone together: Why we expect more from technology and less from each other. Hachette.
113.
TwengeJ. M.CooperA. B.JoinerT. E.DuffyM. E.BinauS. G. (2019). Age, period, and cohort trends in mood disorder indicators and suicide-related outcomes in a nationally representative dataset, 2005–2017. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 128(3), 185–199. https://doi.org/10.1037/abn0000410
114.
TwengeJ. M.MartinG. N.CampbellW. K. (2018). Decreases in psychological well-being among American adolescents after 2012 and links to screen time during the rise of smartphone technology. Emotion, 18(6), 765–780. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000403
115.
Van DamN. T.Van VugtM. K.VagoD. R.SchmalzlL.SaronC. D.OlendzkiA.MeissnerT.LazarS. W.KerrC. E.GorchovJ.FoxK. C. R.FieldB. A.BrittonW. B.Brefczynski-LewisJ. A.MeyerD. E. (2018). Mind the hype: A critical evaluation and prescriptive agenda for research on mindfulness and meditation. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 13(1), 36–61. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691617709589
116.
Van DeursenA. J. A. M.BolleC. L.HegnerS. M.KommersP. A. M. (2015). Modeling habitual and addictive smartphone behavior: The role of smartphone usage types, emotional intelligence, social stress, self-regulation, age, and gender. Computers in Human Behavior, 45, 411–420. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.12.039
117.
Van GordonW.ShoninE.GriffithsM. D. (2016). Meditation awareness training for the treatment of sex addiction: A case study. Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 5(2), 363–372. https://doi.org/10.1556/2006.5.2016.034
118.
Van VelthovenM. H.PowellJ.PowellG. (2018). Problematic smartphone use: Digital approaches to an emerging public health problem. Digital Health, 4, 2055207618759167. https://doi.org/10.1177/2055207618759167
119.
VolkmerS. A.LermerE. (2019). Unhappy and addicted to your phone?–Higher mobile phone use is associated with lower well-being. Computers in Human Behavior, 93, 210–218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.12.015
120.
WacksY.WeinsteinA. M. (2021). Excessive smartphone use is associated with health problems in adolescents and young adults. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 12, 669042. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.669042
121.
WangY.YangH.MontagC.ElhaiJ. D. (2020). Boredom proneness and rumination mediate relationships between depression and anxiety with problematic smartphone use severity. Current Psychology, 41(8), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020-01052-0
122.
WilsonA. C.MackintoshK.PowerK.ChanS. W. (2019). Effectiveness of self-compassion related therapies: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Mindfulness, 10(6), 979–995. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-018-1037-6
123.
WittekC. T.FinseråsT. R.PallesenS.MentzoniR. A.HanssD.GriffithsM. D.MoldeH. (2016). Prevalence and predictors of video game addiction: A study based on a national representative sample of gamers. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 14(5), 672–686. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-015-9592-8
124.
XiaoxuZ.HaixueZ. (2014). The intervention effect of mindfulness-based cognitive therapy on college students with mobile phone addiction. Studies of Psychology and Behavior, 12(3), 391–394. https://psybeh.tjnu.edu.cn/EN/Y2014/V12/I3/391
125.
ZessinU.DickhäuserO.GarbadeS. (2015). The relationship between self- compassion and well- being: A meta- analysis. Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being, 7(3), 340–364. https://doi.org/10.1111/aphw.12051
126.
ZhangD.LeeE. K.MakE. C.HoC. Y.WongS. Y. (2021). Mindfulness-based interventions: An overall review. British Medical Bulletin, 138(1), 41–57. https://doi.org/10.1093/bmb/ldab005
