Family Unpredictability and Sense of Coherence: Relationships With Anxiety and Depression in Two Samples

Abstract

Sense of coherence (SOC) refers to beliefs about how comprehensible, manageable, and meaningful one’s life is. We investigated how SOC relates to family of origin unpredictability and psychological functioning in two samples. College students (N=172, 78% female; M=18.9 years old; 78% white/Caucasian) who recalled more family unpredictability while growing up also reported weaker SOC beliefs and poorer mental health. Furthermore, SOC mediated the negative impact of family unpredictability on anxiety but not on depression. Among adults (N=220, 47% female, 50% male, 3% gender nonconforming; M=40.2 years old; 60% Caucasian), correlations among family chaos, SOC, and psychological functioning were even stronger, overall. One mediation was detected: the relationship between family unpredictability and anxiety was partially explained by adults’ perceptions regarding the manageability of their life. This is the first study to explore the relationships among SOC, family chaos, and psychological functioning.

Keywords

coherence unpredictability anxiety depression family

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

American College Health Association (2018). American college health association-national college health assessment II: Reference group executive summary. American College Health Association. Available online: https://www.acha.org/documents/ncha/NCHA-II_Spring_2018_Reference_Group_Executive_Summary.pdf

Ängarne-Lindberg

Wadsby

(2011). Sense of coherence in young adults with and without experience of parental divorce in childhood. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 52(5), 309–321. https://doi-org.nuncio.cofc.edu/10.1080/10502556.2011.585087

Antonovsky

(1987). Unraveling the mystery of health. Jossey-Bass.

Antonovsky

(1993b). Some salutogenic words of wisdom to the conferees. The Nordic School of Public Health in Gothenburg. Available online at: http://www.angelfire.com/ok/soc/agoteborg.html

Antonovsky

(1993a). The structure and properties of the sense of coherence scale. Social Science & Medicine, 36(6), 725-733. https://doi-org.nuncio.cofc.edu/10.1016/0277-9536(93)90033-z.

Antonovsky

Sagy

(2001). The development of a sense of coherence and its impact on responses to stress situations. The Journal of Social Psychology, 126(2), 213-225.

Baldwin

Shean

G. D.

(2006). A taxometric study of the center for epidemiological studies depression scale. Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs, 132(2), 101-128. https://doi-org.nuncio.cofc.edu/10.3200/MONO.132.2.101-128.

Barnes

L. L. B.

Harp

Jung

W. S.

(2002). Reliability generalization of scores on the spielberger state-trait anxiety inventory. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 62(4), 603–618. https://doi-org.nuncio.cofc.edu/10.1177/0013164402062004005

Belsky

Steinberg

Draper

(1991). Childhood experience, interpersonal development, and reproductive strategy: An evolutionary theory of socialization. Child Development, 62(4), 647–670. https://doi-org.nuncio.cofc.edu/10.2307/1131166

10.

Booth

Amato

P. R.

(2001). Parent pre-divorce relations and offspring post-divorce well- being. Journal of Marriage and Family, 63(1), 197–212. https://doi-org.nuncio.cofc.edu/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2001.00197.x

11.

Bowlby

(1982). Attachment and loss: Retrospect and prospect. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 52(4), 664–678. https://doi-org.nuncio.cofc.edu/10.1111/j.1939-0025.1982.tb01456.x

12.

Braun-Lewensohn

Sagy

Roth

(2011). Brief report: Adolescents under missile attacks: Sense of coherence as a mediator between exposure and stress related reactions. Journal of Adolescence, 34(1), 195-197. https://doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2010.01.006.

13.

Carleton

R. N.

Thibodeau

M. A.

Teale

M. J.

Welch

P. G.

Abrams

M. P.

Robinson

Asmundson

G. J.

(2013). The center for epidemiologic studies depression scale: A review with a theoretical and empirical examination of item content and factor structure. Plos One, 8(3), e58067. https://doi-org.nuncio.cofc.edu/10.1371/journal.pone.0058067.

14.

Clark

D. M.

Teasdale

J. D.

(1982). Diurnal variation in clinical depression and accessibility of memories of positive and negative experiences. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 91(2), 87-95. https://doi-org.nuncio.cofc.edu/10.1037//0021-843x.91.2.87.

15.

Cohen

(1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112(1), 155-159. https://doi-org.nuncio.cofc.edu/10.1037/0033-2909.112.1.155.

16.

Drum

D. J.

Brownson

Hess

E. A.

Burton Denmark

Talley

A. E.

(2017). College students’ sense of coherence and connectedness as predictors of suicidal thoughts and behaviors. Archives of Suicide Research, 21(1), 169-184. https://doi-org.nuncio.cofc.edu/10.1080/13811118.2016.1166088.

17.

Dweck

(2015). Carol Dweck revisits the growth mindset. Education Week, 35(5), 20-24. https://www.edweek.org/leadership/opinion-carol-dweck-revisits-the-growth-mindset/2015/09.

18.

Eriksson

Lindström

(2007). Antonovsky’s sense of coherence scale and its relationwith quality of life: A systematic review. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 61(5), 938-944. https://doi-org.nuncio.cofc.edu/10.1136/jech.2006.056028.

19.

Feldt

Metsäpelto

R.-L.

Kinnunen

Pulkkinen

(2007). Sense of coherence and five- factor approach to personality: Conceptual relationships. European Psychologist, 12(3), 165–172. https://doi-org.nuncio.cofc.edu/10.1027/1016-9040.12.3.165

20.

Frankl

V.E.

(1963). Man’s search for meaning: An introduction to logotherapy. Square Press.

21.

García-Moya

Moreno

Jiménez-Iglesias

(2013). Understanding the joint effects of family and other developmental contexts on the sense of coherence (SOC): A person- focused analysis using the classification tree. Journal of Adolescence, 36(5), 913–923. https://doi-org.nuncio.cofc.edu/10.1016/j.adolescence.2013.07.007

22.

Grevenstein

Aguilar-Raab

Bluemke

(2018). Mindful and resilient? Incremental validity of sense of coherence over mindfulness and big five personality factors for quality of life outcomes. Journal of Happiness Studies: An Interdisciplinary Forum on Subjective Well-Being, 19(7), 1883–1902. https://doi-org.nuncio.cofc.edu/10.1007/s10902-017-9901-y

23.

Grevenstein

Aguilar-Raab

Schweitzer

Bluemke

(2016a). Through the tunnel, to the light: Why sense of coherence covers and exceeds resilience, optimism, and self- compassion. Personality and Individual Differences, 98(1), 208–217. https://doi-org.nuncio.cofc.edu/10.1016/j.paid.2016.04.001

24.

Grevenstein

Bluemke

(2017). Longitudinal factor analysis and measurement invariance of sense of coherence and general self-efficacy in adolescence. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 33(5), 377–387. https://doi-org.nuncio.cofc.edu/10.1027/1015-5759/a000294 (Supplemental)

25.

Grevenstein

Bluemke

Kroeninger-Jungaberle

(2016b). Incremental validity of sense of coherence, neuroticism, extraversion, and general self-efficacy: Longitudinal prediction of substance use frequency and mental health. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes, 14(1), 9. https://doi-org.nuncio.cofc.edu/10.1186/s12955-016-0412-z.

26.

Henry

Moffitt

T. E.

Caspi

Langley

(1994). On the “Rememberance of things past”: A longitudinal evaluation of the retrospective model. Psychological Assessment, 6(3), 92–101. https://doi-org.nuncio.cofc.edu/10.1037/0893-164X.10.3.167

27.

Hill

E.M.

Jenkins

Farmer

(2008). Family unpredictability, future discounting, and risk taking. The Journal of Socio-Economics, 37(4), 1381–1396. https://doi-org.nuncio.cofc.edu/10.1016/j.socec.2006.12.081

28.

Hittner

J. B.

(2007). Factorial invariance of the 13-item sense of coherence scale across gender. Journal of Health Psychology, 12(2), 273–280. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1359105307074256

29.

Hittner

J. B.

Swickert

(2010). Discriminant ability of the sense of coherence scale: Manageability, meaningfulnesscomprehensibility as classifiers of depression. Individual Differences Research, 8(1), 171-175.

30.

Hochwälder

(2013). Negative life events and mental ill-health among women: A prospective study of the main, moderating and mediating effect of sense of coherence. Journal of Happiness Studies: An Interdisciplinary Forum on Subjective Well-Being, 14(1), 1739–1750. https://doi-org.nuncio.cofc.edu/10.1007/s10902-012-9407-6

31.

Hochwälder

(2015). Test of Antonovsky's postulate: High sense of coherence helps people avoid negative life events. Psychological Reports, 116(2), 363–376. https://doi-org.nuncio.cofc.edu/10.2466/15.PR0.116k23w3

32.

Hood

C. O.

Ross

L. T.

Wills

(2019). Family factors and depressive symptoms among college students: Understanding the role of self-compassion. Journal of American College Health, 68(7), 683–687. https://doi-org.nuncio.cofc.edu/10.1080/07448481.2019.1596920

33.

Kolak

A.M.

Van Wade

Ross

L.T.

(2018). Family unpredictability and psychological distress in early adulthood: The role of family closeness and coping mechanisms. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 27(12), 3842–3852. https://doi-org.nuncio.cofc.edu/10.1007/s10826-018-1211-4

34.

Krause

(2011). Developing sense of coherence in educational contexts: Making progress in promoting mental health in children. International Review of Psychiatry, 23(6), 525–532. https://doi-org.nuncio.cofc.edu/10.3109/09540261.2011.637907

35.

Langeland

Wahl

A. K.

Kristoffersen

Hanestad

B. R.

(2007). Promoting coping: Salutogenesis among people with mental health problems. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 28(3), 275–295. https://doi-org.nuncio.cofc.edu/10.1080/01612840601172627

36.

Länsimies

Pietilä

Hietasola

H. S.

Kangasniemi

(2017). A systematic review of adolescents’ sense of coherence and health. Scandinavian Journal of Caring Sciences, 31(4), 651–661. https://doi-org.nuncio.cofc.edu/10.1111/scs.12402

37.

Lowry

(2019). Significance of the difference between two correlation coefficients. Available at: http://vassarstats.net/rdiff.html

38.

Lan

(2020). A structural equation model of perceived autonomy support and growth mindset in undergraduate students: The mediating role of sense of coherence. Frontiers in Psychology: Educational Psychology, 11(1), 2055. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02055

39.

Mattisson

Horstmann

Bogren

(2014). Relationship of SOC with sociodemographic variables, mental disorders and mortality. Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, 42(5), 434–445. https://doi-org.nuncio.cofc.edu/10.1177/1403494814527188

40.

Moksnes

U.K.

Espnes

G.Aa.

Lillefjell

(2012). Sense of coherence and emotional health in adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 35(2), 433–441. https://doi-org.nuncio.cofc.edu/10.1016/j.adolescence.2011.07.013

41.

Moksnes

U. K.

Lazarewicz

(2016). The association between self-esteem and sense of coherence in adolescents aged 13–18 years—The role of sex and age differences. Personality and Individual Differences, 90(1), 150–154. https://doi-org.nuncio.cofc.edu/10.1016/j.paid.2015.10.049

42.

Nagata

McCormick

Piatt

(2020). Leisure behavior and sense of coherence in the context of depression. Journal of Community Psychology, 48(2), 283–301. https://doi-org.nuncio.cofc.edu/10.1002/jcop.22250

43.

Neuner

Miller

Maulhardt

Weiss-Gerlach

Neumann

Lau

Spies

(2006). Hazardous alcohol consumption and sense of coherence in emergency department patients with minor trauma. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 82(2), 143–150. https://doi-org.nuncio.cofc.edu/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2005.09.001

44.

Okun

Stein

R. K.

Bauman

L. J.

Silver

E. J.

(1996). Content validity of the psychiatric symptom index, CES-depression scale, and state-trait anxiety inventory from the perspective of DSM-IV. Psychological Reports, 79(3), 1059–1069. https://doi-org.nuncio.cofc.edu/10.2466/pr0.1996.79.3.1059

45.

Piiroinen

Tuomainen

T.-P.

Tolmunen

Kauhanen

Kurl

Nilsen

Suominen

Välimäki

Voutilainen

(2020). Sense of coherence and mortality: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychosomatic Medicine, 82(6), 561–567. https://doi-org.nuncio.cofc.edu/10.1097/PSY.0000000000000812

46.

Posadzki

Stockl

Musonda

Tsouroufli

(2010). A mixed-method approach to sense of coherence, health behaviors, self-efficacy and optimism: Towards the operationalization of positive health attitudes. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 51(3), 246–252. https://doi-org.nuncio.cofc.edu/10.1111/j.1467-9450.2009.00764.x

47.

Qualtrics . (2019). Qualtrics research services. https://www.qualtrics.com/research-services/online-sample/

48.

Radloff

L. S.

(1977). The center for epidemiological studies – depression Scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1(3), 385–401. https://doi-org.nuncio.cofc.edu/10.1177/014662167700100306

49.

Ristkari

Sourander

Rønning

J.A.

Nikolakaros

Helenius

(2008). Life events, self-reported psychopathology and sense of coherence among young men—a population- based study. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 62(6), 464–471. https://doi-org.nuncio.cofc.edu/10.1080/08039480801984313

50.

Ross

L. T.

Gill

J. L.

(2002). Eating disorders: Relations with inconsistent discipline, anxietyand drinking among college women. Psychological Reports, 91(1), 289–298. https://doi-org.nuncio.cofc.edu/10.2466/PR0.91.5.289-298

51.

Ross

L. T.

Hood

C. O.

Short

S. D.

(2016a). Unpredictability and symptoms of depression and anxiety. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 35(5), 371-385. https://doi-org.nuncio.cofc.edu/10.1521/jscp.2016.35.5.371.

52.

Ross

L. T.

McDuff

J. A.

(2008). The retrospective family unpredictability scale: Reliability and validity. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 17(1), 13–27. https://doi-org.nuncio.cofc.edu/10.1007/s10826-007-9138-1

53.

Ross

L. T.

Short

S. D.

Garofano

(2016b). Scale of unpredictability beliefs: Reliability and validity. The Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied, 150(8), 976-1003. https://doi-org.nuncio.cofc.edu/10.1080/00223980.2016.1225660.

54.

Ross

L. T.

Wynne

(2010). Parental depression and divorce and adult children’s well- being: The role of family unpredictability. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 19(6), 757–761. https://doi-org.nuncio.cofc.edu/10.1007/s10826-010-9366-7

55.

Roulin

(2015). Don’t throw the baby out with the bathwater: Comparing data quality of crowdsourcing, online panels, and student samples. Industrial and Organizational Psychology: Perspectives on Science and Practice, 8(2), 190–196. https://doi-org.nuncio.cofc.edu/10.1017/iop.2015.24

56.

Sagy

Antonovsky

(2000). The development of the sense of coherence: A retrospective study of early life experiences in the family. The International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 51(12), 155–166. https://doi.org/10.2190/765L-K6NV-JK52-UFKT

57.

Scalf-McIver

Thompson

J. K.

(1989). Family correlates of bulimic characteristics in college females. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 45(3), 467–472. https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-4679(198905)45:3<467

58.

Seligman

M.E.P.

(1975). Helplessness: On depression, development and death. Freeman.

59.

Silventoinen

Volanen

S.-M.

Vuoksimaa

Rose

R. J.

Suominen

Kaprio

(2014). A supportive family environment in childhood enhances the level and heritability of sense of coherence in early adulthood. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology: The International Journal for Research in Social and Genetic Epidemiology and Mental Health Services, 49(12), 1951–1960. https://doi-org.nuncio.cofc.edu/10.1007/s00127-014-0851-y

60.

Spielberger

C. D.

Gorsuch

R. L.

Lushene

Vagg

P. R.

Jacobs

G. A.

(1983). Manual for the state-trait anxiety inventory. Consulting Psychologists Press.

61.

Steger

M. F.

(2009). Meaning in life. In Lopez

S. J.

Snyder

C. R.

(Eds.), Oxford handbook of positive psychology (2nd ed, pp. 679–687). Oxford University Press.

62.

Stockings

Degenhardt

Lee

Y. Y.

Mihalopoulos

Liu

Hobbs

Patton

(2015). Symptom screening scales for detecting major depressive disorder in children and adolescents: A systematic review and meta-analysis of reliability, validity and diagnostic utility. Journal of Affective Disorders, 174(1), 447–463. https://doi-org.nuncio.cofc.edu/10.1016/j.jad.2014.11.061

63.

Super

Wagemakers

M. A. E.

Picavet

H. S. J.

Verkooijen

K. T.

Koelen

M. A.

(2016). Strengthening sense of coherence: Opportunities for theory building in health promotion. Health Promotion International, 31, 869–878. http://search.ebscohost.com.nuncio.cofc.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=psyh&AN=2017-24636-006&site=ehost-live&scope=site

64.

Surtees

Wainwright

Luben

Khaw

K.T.

Day

(2003). Sense of coherence and mortality in men and women in the EPIC-Norfolk United Kingdom prospective cohort study. American Journal of Epidemiology, 158(12), 1202–1209. https://doi-org.nuncio.cofc.edu/10.1093/aje/kwg272

65.

Terlizzi

E. P.

Villarroel

M.P.

(2020). Symptoms of generalized anxiety disorder among adults: United States, 2019. National Center for Health Statistics Data Brief, no 378 . National Center for Health Statistics. Available: https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/databriefs/db378.htm

66.

Villarroel

M. P.

Terlizzi

E. P.

(2020). Symptoms of depression among adults: United States, 2019. National Center for Health Statistics Data Brief, no 379. National Center for Health Statistics. Available: https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db379-H.pdf

67.

Volanen

S.-M.

Lahelma

Silventoinen

Suominen

(2004). Factors contributing to sense of coherence among men and women. European Journal of Public Health, 14(3), 322–330. https://doi-org.nuncio.cofc.edu/10.1093/eurpub/14.3.322

68.

Vossler

(2012). Salutogenesis and the sense of coherence: Promoting health and resilience in counselling and psychotherapy. Counselling Psychology Review, 27(3), 68-78.

69.

Walter

S.L.

Seibert

S.E.

Goering

O’Boyle

E. H.

Jr. (2019). A tale of two sample sources: Do results from online panel data and conventional data converge? Journal of Business Psychology, 34(4), 425–452. https://doi-org.nuncio.cofc.edu/10.1007/s10869-018-9552-y

70.

Williams

J. W.

Pignone

Ramirez

Stellato

C. P.

(2002). Identifying depression in primary care: A literature synthesis of case-finding instruments. General Hospital Psychiatry, 24(4), 222–237. https://doi-org.nuncio.cofc.edu/10.1016/s0163-8343(02)00195-0

71.

Yoshizumi

Murase

Murakami

Takai

(2006). Reliability and validity of the Parenting Scale of Inconsistency. Psychological Reports, 99(1), 74–84. https://doi-org.nuncio.cofc.edu/10.2466/PR0.99.5.74-84

72.

Zimprich

Allemand

Hornung

(2006). Measurement invariance of the abridged sense of coherence scale in adolescents. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 22(4), 280–287. http://dx.doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759.22.4.280