Empathy, a core process for social interactions, is the capacity to understand and share others’ mental states and emotions. Each individual is thought to have a maximum level of empathy (empathic ability) and a spontaneous tendency to express it (empathic propensity), which can be affected by multiple factors. Two within-subject studies were conducted to assess the malleability of empathy by modulating contextual factors and measuring their interaction with psychological characteristics. In Study 1, 59 healthy adults evaluated their empathy for people showing facial expressions of pain following different instructions: Passive Observation and Instruction to Actively Empathize. In Study 2, 56 healthy adults performed a similar task under two conditions: Passive Observation and Observation under a Cognitive Load. The results revealed that empathy was significantly increased in the actively empathizing condition (Study 1) and under a cognitive load, but more importantly for men (Study 2). The level of change between the two conditions was associated with self-reported empathy, autistic, alexithymia and psychopathic traits (Study 1), as well as with working memory capacities and the level of empathy reported in the passive observation condition (Study 2). These findings suggest that an instruction to actively empathize and, surprisingly, a cognitive load can both increase empathy, but not for the same individuals. An instruction to actively empathize seems to increase empathy for individuals with good empathic dispositions, while a cognitive load enhances empathy in people for which empathic propensity is sub-optimal.
AchimA. M.OuelletR.RoyM.-A.JacksonP. L. (2011).
Mentalizing in first-episode psychosis and meta-analytic comparison with previous studies in schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research,
190(1), 3–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2010.10.030
3.
AndreoniJ.VesterlundL. (2001).
Which is the fair sex? Gender differences in altruism. The Quarterly Journal of Economics,
116(1), 293–312. https://doi.org/10.1162/003355301556419
4.
AnilA. E.KivircikB. B.BaturS.KabakçiE.KitişA.GüvenE.BaşarK.TurgutT. I.ArkarH. (2003).
The Turkish version of the auditory consonant trigram test as a measure of working memory: A normative study. The Clinical Neuropsychologist,
17(2), 159–169. https://doi.org/10.1076/clin.17.2.159.16510
BaezS.FlichtentreiD.PratsM.MastanduenoR.GarcíaA. M.CetkovichM.IbáñezA. (2017).
Men, women… who cares? A population-based study on sex differences and gender roles in empathy and moral cognition. PLoS One,
12(6), e0179336. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0179336
7.
BajoukO.HansenneM. (2019).
Dispositional perspective-taking and empathic concern modulate the impact of cognitive load on empathy for facial emotions. Psychological Reports,
122(6), 2201–2219. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033294118799337
8.
Baron-CohenS.WheelwrightS. (2004).
The empathy quotient: An investigation of adults with Asperger syndrome or high functioning autism, and normal sex differences. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,
34(2), 163–175. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JADD.0000022607.19833.00
9.
Baron-CohenS.WheelwrightS.SkinnerR.MartinJ.ClubleyE. (2001).
The autism-spectrum quotient (AQ): Evidence from Asperger syndrome/high-functioning autism, males and females, scientists and mathematicians. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,
31(1), 5–17. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005653411471
10.
BatchelderL.BrosnanM.AshwinC. (2017).
The development and validation of the empathy components questionnaire (ECQ). PLoS One,
12(1), e0169185. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal. pone.0169185
11.
BatsonC. D. (1991). The altruism question: Toward a social-psychological answer.
Erlbaum.
12.
BatsonC. D.EklundJ. H.ChermokV. L.HoytJ. L.OrtizB. G. (2007).
An additional antecedent of empathic concern: Valuing the welfare of the person in need. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
93(1), 65–74. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.93.1.65
13.
BerkmanE. T.LiebermanM. D. (2009).
Using neuroscience to broaden emotion regulation: Theoretical and methodological considerations. Social and Personality Psychology Compass,
3(4), 475–493. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2009.00186.x
14.
BirdG.VidingE. (2014).
The self to other model of empathy: Providing a new framework for understanding empathy impairments in psychopathy, autism, and alexithymia. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews,
47, 520–532. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.09.021
15.
BlairR. J. R. (2005).
Applying a cognitive neuroscience perspective to the disorder of psychopathy. Development and Psychopathology,
17(3), 865–891. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579405050418
16.
BlakelyM. J.KempS.HeltonW. S. (2016).
Volitional running and tone counting: The impact of cognitive load on running over natural terrain. IIE Transactions on Occupational, Ergonomics and Human Factors,
7323, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/21577323.2015.1055864
17.
BlakemoreS. J. (2012).
Development of the social brain in adolescence. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine,
105(3), 111–116. https://doi.org/10.1258/jrsm.2011.110221
18.
BockE. M.HosserD. (2014).
Empathy as a predictor of recidivism among young adult offenders. Psychology, Crime and Law,
20(2), 101–115. https://doi.org/10.1080/1068316X.2012.749472
19.
BoucherL.ViparinaB.CollinsW. M. (2020).
Working memory load selectively influences response inhibition in a stop signal task. Psychological Reports,
0(0), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033294120928271
20.
BrownJ. (1958).
Some tests of the decay theory of immediate memory. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,
10(1), 12–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470215808416249
CansinoS.Hernández-RamosE.Estrada-ManillaC.Torres-TrejoF.Martínez-GalindoJ. G.Ayala- HernándezM.Gomez-FernandezT.OsorioD.Cedillo-TinocoM.Garcés-FloresL.Beltran-PalaciosK.Garcia-LazaroH. G.Gracia-GutiérrezF.Cadena-ArenasY.Fernandez-ApanL.BärtschiA.Rodríguez-OrtisM. D. (2013).
The decline of verbal and visuospatial working memory across the adult life span. Age (Dordrecht, Netherlands),
35(6), 2283–2302. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11357-013-9531-1
ChambersJ. R.DavisM. H. (2012).
The role of the self in perspective-taking and empathy: Ease of self-simulation as a heuristic for inferring empathic feelings. Social Cognition,
30(2), 153–180. https://doi.org/10.1521/soco.2012.30.2.153
25.
ChoiD.WatanukiS. (2014).
Effect of empathy trait on attention to faces: An event-related potential (ERP) study. Journal of Physiological Anthropology,
33(1), 4. https://doi.org/10.1186/1880-6805-33-4
26.
Christov-MooreL.IacoboniM. (2019).
Sex differences in somatomotor representations of others’ pain: A permutation-based analysis. Brain Structure & Function,
224(2), 937–947. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00429-018-1814-y
27.
Christov-MooreL.SimpsonE. A.CoudéG.GrigaityteK.IacoboniM.FerrariP. F. (2014).
Empathy: Gender effects in brain and behavior. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews,
46(4), 604–627. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.09.001
28.
CollM. P.BudellL.RainvilleP.DecetyJ.JacksonP. L. (2012).
The role of gender in the interaction between self-pain and the perception of pain in others. The Journal of Pain: Official Journal of the American Pain Society,
13(7), 695–703. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpain.2012.04.009
29.
CollM.-P.GrégoireM.LatimerM.EugèneF.JacksonP. L. (2011).
Perception of pain in others: Implication for caregivers. Pain Management,
1(3), 257–265. https://doi.org/10.2217/pmt.11.21
30.
CookR.BrewerR.ShahP.BirdG. (2013).
Alexithymia, not autism, predicts poor recognition of emotional facial expressions. Psychological Science,
24(5), 723–732.
31.
Craig, K. D., Versloot, J., Goubert, L., Vervoort, T., & Crombez, G. (2010).
Perceiving Pain in Others: automatic and Controlled Mechanisms. The Journal of Pain : official Journal of the American Pain Society, J Pain,
11(2), 101–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpain.2009.08.008
32.
CuiF.ZhuX.LuoY.ChengJ. (2017).
Working memory load modulates the neural response to other’s pain: Evidence from an ERP study. Neuroscience Letters,
644, 24–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2017.02.026
33.
CzekalaC.MauguièreF.MazzaS.JacksonP. L.FrotM. (2015).
My brain reads pain in your face, before knowing your gender. The Journal of Pain: Official Journal of the American Pain Society,
16(12), 1342–1352. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpain.2015.09.006
34.
DavisM. H. (1980). A multidimensional approach to individual differences in empathy (Doctoral Thesis). Texas University, Austin, TX, USA.
35.
DavisM. H. (1983).
Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
44(1), 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113
36.
DavisM. H.ConklinL.SmithA.LuceC. (1996).
Effect of perspective taking on the cognitive representation of persons: A merging of self and other. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
70(4), 713–726.
37.
De WaalF. B. M.PrestonS. D. (2017).
Mammalian empathy: Behavioural manifestations and neural basis. Nature Reviews. Neuroscience,
18(8), 498–509. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn.2017.72
38.
DecetyJ.CowellJ. M. (2018).
Interpersonal harm aversion as a necessary foundation for morality: A developmental neuroscience perspective. Development and Psychopathology,
30(1), 153–164. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579417000530
39.
DecetyJ.JacksonP. L. (2004).
The functional architecture of human empathy. Behavioral and Cognitive Neuroscience Reviews,
3(2), 71–100. https://doi.org/10.1177/1534582304267187
40.
DecetyJ.LewisK. L.CowellJ. M. (2015).
Specific electrophysiological components disentangle affective sharing and empathic concern in psychopathy. Journal of Neurophysiology,
114(1), 493–504. https://doi.org/10.1152/jn.00253.2015
41.
DerntlB.FinkelmeyerA.EickhoffS.KellermannT.FalkenbergD. I.SchneiderF.HabelU. (2010).
Multidimensional assessment of empathic abilities: Neural correlates and gender differences. Psychoneuroendocrinology,
35(1), 67–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2009
42.
Drayton, L. A., Santos, L. R., & Baskin-Sommers, A. (2018).
Psychopaths Fail to Automatically Take the Perspective of Others. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A,
115(13), 3302–3307. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1721903115
43.
DrweckiB. B.MooreC. F.WardS. E.PrkachinK. M. (2011).
Reducing racial disparities in pain treatment: The role of empathy and perspective-taking. Pain,
152(5), 1001–1006. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pain.2010.12.005
FaulF.ErdfelderE.BuchnerA.LangA.-G. (2009).
Statistical power analyses using G∗ power 3.1: Tests for correlation and regression analyses. Behavior Research Methods,
41(4), 1149–1160. https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.41.4.1149
47.
GagnonV. (2011). Validation préliminaire de l’Échelle de psychopathie autorapportée (Master’s thesis). Laval University, Quebec, Canada.
48.
GalangC. M.ObhiS. S. (2019).
Please empathize! Instructions to empathise strengthen response facilitation after pain observation. Cognition and Emotion,
34(2), 316–328. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2019.1625307
49.
GalleseV. (2001).
The ‘shared manifold’ hypothesis. Journal of Consciousness Studies,
8(5–7), 33–50.
50.
GardnerM. R.SorhusI.EdmondsC. J.PottsR. (2012).
Sex differences in components of imagined perspective transformation. Acta Psychologica,
140(1), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2012.02.002
51.
GeurtenM.VincentE.Van der LindenM.CoyetteF.MeulemansT. (2016).
Working memory assessment: Construct validity of the Brown-Peterson test. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science / Revue Canadienne Des Sciences du Comportement,
48(4), 328–336. https://doi.org/10.1037/cbs0000057
52.
GrégoireM.CollM. P.TremblayM. P. B.PrkachinK. M.JacksonP. L. (2016).
Repeated exposure to others’ pain reduces vicarious pain intensity estimation. European Journal of Pain (London, England),
20(10), 1644–1652. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejp.888
HiraokaD.NomuraM. (2016).
The influence of cognitive load on empathy and intention in response to infant crying. Scientific Reports,
6, 28247. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep28247
55.
Holmes, A., Mogg, K., De Fockert, J., Nielsen, M. K., & Bradley, B. P. (2014).
Electrophysiological Evidence for Greater Attention to Threat When Cognitive Control Resources Are Depleted. Cognitive, Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience, Cogn Affect Behav Neurosci,
14(2), 827–835. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-013-0212-4 24165903
56.
IbáñezA.AguadoJ.BaezS.HuepeD.LopezV.OrtegaR.SigmanM.MikulanE.LischinskyA.TorrenteF.CetkovichM.TorralvaT.BekinschteinT.ManesF. (2014).
From neural signatures of emotional modulation to social cognition: Individual differences in healthy volunteers and psychiatric participants. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience,
9(7), 939–950. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nst067
57.
IbáñezA.HurtadoE.LobosA.EscobarJ.TrujilloN.BaezS.HuepeD.ManesF.DecetyJ. (2011).
Subliminal presentation of other faces (but not own face) primes behavioral and evoked cortical processing of empathy for pain. Brain Research,
1398, 72–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2011.05.014
58.
IckesW.GesnP. R.GrahamT. (2000).
Gender differences in empathic accuracy: Differential ability or differential motivation?Personal Relationships,
7(1), 95–109.
59.
IhnenS. K.ChurchJ. A.PetersenS. E.SchlaggarB. L. (2009).
Lack of generalizability of sex differences in the fMRI BOLD activity associated with language processing in adults. NeuroImage,
45(3), 1020–1032. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2008.12.034
60.
Jackson, P. L., Latimer, M., Eugène, F., Macleod, E., Hatfield, T., Vachon-Presseau, E., Michon, P.-E., & Prkachin, K. M. (2017).
Empathy in Paediatric Intensive Care Nurses Part 2: Neural Correlates. Journal of Advanced Nursing, J Adv Nurs,
73(11), 2686–2695. https://doi.org/10.1111/jan.13334
61.
JauniauxJ.KhatibiA.RainvilleP.JacksonP. L. (2019).
A meta-analysis of neuroimaging studies on pain empathy: Investigating the role of emotional information and observer’s perspective. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience,
14(8), 789–813. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsz055
62.
JieJ.LuoP.ZhuangM.FanM.WangY.YangY.ZhengX. (2019a).
Gender differences in empathic responses to others’ economic payoffs: An event-related potentials study. Experimental Brain Research,
237(5), 1347–1359. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-019-05518-x
63.
JieJ.LuoP.ZhuangM.LiB.PangY.LiJ.ZhengX. (2019b).
Self-interest induces counter-empathy at the late stage of empathic responses to others’ economic payoffs. Frontiers in Psychology,
10, 372. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00372
KappesserJ.WilliamsA. C. de C. (2002).
Pain and negative emotions in the face: Judgements by health care professionals. Pain,
99(1–2), 197–206. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-3959(02)00101-X
66.
KeysersC.GazzolaV. (2014).
Dissociating the ability and propensity for empathy. Trends in Cognitive Sciences,
18(4), 163–166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2013.12.011
67.
KleinK. J. K.HodgesS. D. (2001).
Gender differences, motivation, and empathic accuracy: When it pays to understand. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,
27(6), 720–730. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167201276007
68.
LammC.DecetyJ.SingerT. (2011).
Meta-analytic evidence for common and distinct neural networks associated with directly experienced pain and empathy for pain. NeuroImage,
54(3), 2492–2502. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.10.014
69.
LepageJ.-F.LortieM.Taschereau-DumouchelV.ThéoretH. (2009).
Validation of French-Canadian versions of the empathy quotient and autism spectrum quotient. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science / Revue Canadienne Des Sciences du Comportement,
41(4), 272–276. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016248
70.
LevensonM.KiehlK.FitzpatrickC. (1995).
Assessing psychopathic attributes in a noninstitutionalized population. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
68(1), 151–158. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.68.1.151
71.
LewisK. L.SmithJ. L.HawkinsonK. E. (2011). Tuning out in order to fit in: The effects of gender role expectations and affiliation motives on men’s interpersonal sensitivity. In SmithJ. L.IckesW.HallJ. A.HodgesS. D. (Eds.), Managing interpersonal sensitivity: Knowing when & when not to understand others (pp. 75–97).
Nova Science Publishers Inc.
72.
LilienfeldS. O.WidowsM. R. (2005). Psychopathic personality inventory-revised: Professional manual.
Psychological Assessment Resources Inc.
73.
LoasG.FremauxD.MarchandM. P. (1995).
Factorial structure and internal consistency of the French version of the twenty-item Toronto alexithymia scale in a group of 183 healthy probands. Encéphale,
21, 117–122.
74.
López-SáezM.MoralesJ. F.LisbonaA. (2008).
Evolution of gender stereotypes in Spain: Traits and roles. The Spanish Journal of Psychology,
11(2), 609–617. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1138741600004613
75.
Lucas-MolinaB.Pérez-AlbénizA.Ortuño-SierraJ.Fonseca-PedreroE. (2017).
Dimensional structure and measurement invariance of the interpersonal reactivity index (IRI) across gender. Psicothema,
29(4), 590–595. https://doi.org/10.7334/psicothema2017.19
76.
MazefskyC. A.HerringtonJ.SiegelM.ScarpaA.MaddoxB. B.ScahillL.WhiteS. W. (2013).
The role of emotion regulation in autism spectrum disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry,
52(7), 679–688. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2013.05.006
77.
MeffertH.GazzolaV.den BoerJ. A.BartelsA. A.KeysersC. (2013).
Reduced spontaneous but relatively normal deliberate vicarious representations in psychopathy. Brain: A Journal of Neurology,
136(Pt 8), 2550–2562. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awt190
78.
MeiringL.SubramoneyS.ThomasK. G. F.DecetyJ.FourieM. M. (2014).
Empathy and helping: Effects of racial group membership and cognitive load. South African Journal of Psychology,
44(4), 426–438. https://doi.org/10.1177/0081246314530280
79.
MelloniM.LopezV.IbáñezA. (2014).
Empathy and contextual social cognition. Cognitive, Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience,
14(1), 407–425. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-013-0205-3
80.
MichalskaK. J.KinzlerK. D.DecetyJ. (2013).
Age-related sex differences in explicit measures of empathy do not predict brain responses across childhood and adolescence. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience,
3, 22–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2012.08.001
81.
MorelliS. A.LiebermanM. D. (2013).
The role of automaticity and attention in neural processes underlying empathy for happiness, sadness, and anxiety. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience,
7, 160. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00160
82.
MorelliS. A.LiebermanM. D.ZakiJ. (2015).
The emerging study of positive empathy. Social and Personality Psychology Compass,
9(2), 57–68. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12157
83.
MoriguchiY.TouroutoglouA.DickersonB. C.BarrettL. F. (2014).
Sex differences in the neural correlates of affective experience. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience,
9(5), 591–600. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nst030
84.
O’BrienE.KonrathS. H.GrühnD.HagenA. L. (2013).
Empathic concern and perspective taking: Linear and quadratic effects of age across the adult life span. The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences,
68(2), 168–175. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbs055
85.
PaasF.RenklA.SwellerJ. (2004).
Cognitive load theory: Instructional implications of the interaction between information structures and cognitive architecture. Instructional Science,
32(1/2), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:TRUC.0000021806.17516.d0
86.
PandeyR.SaxenaP.DubeyA. (2011).
Emotion regulation difficulties in alexithymia and mental health. Europe’s Journal of Psychology,
7(4), 604–623. https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v7i4.155
87.
ParkerJ. D.TaylorG. J.BagbyR. M. (2003).
The 20-item Toronto alexithymia scale: III. Reliability and factorial validity in a community population. Journal of Psychosomatic Research,
55(3), 269–275. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-3999(02)00578-0
88.
PaulhusD. L.HemphillJ.HareR. (2012). Manual for the Self-Report psychopathy scale (SRP-III).
Multi-Health Systems.
89.
PetersM. L.VielerJ. S.LautenbacherS. (2016).
Dispositional and induced optimism lead to attentional preference for faces displaying positive emotions: An eye-tracker study. The Journal of Positive Psychology,
11(3), 258–269. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2015.1048816
90.
PetersonL.PetersonM. J. (1959).
Short-term retention of individual verbal items. Journal of Experimental Psychology,
58(3), 193–198. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0049234
91.
PilchM.OʼhoraD.JenningsC.CaesL.McGuireB. E.KainzV.VervoortT. (2020).
Perspective-taking influences attentional deployment towards facial expressions of pain: An eye-tracking study. Pain,
161(6), 1286–1296. https://doi.org/10.1097/j.pain.0000000000001827
92.
PrenticeD. A.CarranzaE. (2002).
What women and men should be, shouldn’t be, are allowed to be, and don’t have to be: The contents of prescriptive gender stereotypes. Psychology of Women Quarterly,
26(4), 269–281. https://doi.org/10.1111/1471-6402.t01-1-00066
93.
PrestonS. D. (2007). A perception-action model for empathy. In FarrowT.WoodruffP. (Eds.), Empathy in mental illness (pp. 428–447).
Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511543753.024
94.
PrestonS. D.de WaalF. B. M. (2002).
Empathy: Its ultimate and proximate bases. The Behavioral and Brain Sciences,
25(1), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X02000018
95.
Prkachin, K. M., Kaseweter, K. A., Browne, M.E. (2015). Understanding the Suffering of Others: The Sources and Consequences of Third-Person Pain. In G. Pickering & S. Gibson (Eds.) Pain Emotion and Cognition: A Complex Nexus (p. 53‑72). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-12033-1_4
96.
R Core Team (2020). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing. http://www.R-project.org/
97.
RamesonL. T.MorelliS. A.LiebermanM. D. (2012).
The neural correlates of empathy: Experience, automaticity, and prosocial behavior. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience,
24(1), 235–245. https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn_a_00130
98.
ReniersR. L.CorcoranR.DrakeR.ShryaneN. M.VöllmB. A. (2011).
The QCAE: A questionnaire of cognitive and affective empathy. Journal of Personality Assessment,
93(1), 84–95. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2010.528484
99.
RizzolattiG.FadigaL.GalleseV.FogassiL. (1996).
Premotor cortex and the recognition of motor actions. Brain Research. Cognitive Brain Research,
3(2), 131–141. https://doi.org/10.1016/0926-6410(95)00038-0
100.
RobertsR. J.PenningtonB. F. (1996).
An interactive framework for examining prefrontal cognitive processes. Developmental Neuropsychology,
12(1), 105–126. https://doi.org/10.1080/87565649609540642
101.
RueckertL.BranchB.DoanT. (2011).
Are gender differences in empathy due to differences in emotional reactivity?Psychology,
2(6), 574–578. https://doi.org/10.4236/psych.2011.26088
Shamay-TsooryS. G.Aharon-PeretzJ.PerryD. (2009).
Two systems for empathy: A double dissociation between emotional and cognitive empathy in inferior frontal gyrus versus ventromedial prefrontal lesions. Brain: A Journal of Neurology,
132(Pt 3), 617–627. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awn279
104.
ShengF.HanS. (2012).
Manipulations of cognitive strategies and intergroup relationships reduce the racial bias in empathic neural responses. NeuroImage,
61(4), 786–797. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.04.028
105.
ShihH. H.LinM. J. (2017).
Does anxiety affect adolescent academic performance? The inverted-u hypothesis revisited. Journal of Labor Research,
38(1), 45–81. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12122-016-9238-z
106.
SierksmaJ.ThijsJ.VerkuytenM. (2015).
In-group bias in children’s intention to help can be overpowered by inducing empathy. The British Journal of Developmental Psychology,
33(1), 45–56. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjdp.12065
107.
SimonD.CraigK. D.GosselinF.BelinP.RainvilleP. (2008).
Recognition and discrimination of prototypical dynamic expressions of pain and emotions. Pain,
135(1–2), 55–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pain.2007.05.008
108.
SimonD.CraigK. D.MiltnerW. H. R.RainvilleP. (2006).
Brain responses to dynamic facial expressions of pain. Pain,
126(1–3), 309–318. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pain.2006.08.033
109.
SingerT.SeymourB.O’DohertyJ. P.StephanK. E.DolanR. J.FrithC. D. (2006).
Empathic neural responses are modulated by the perceived fairness of others. Nature,
439(7075), 466–469. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature04271
110.
SpuntR. P.LiebermanM. D. (2013).
The busy social brain: Evidence for automaticity and control in the neural systems supporting social cognition and action understanding. Psychological Science,
24(1), 80–86. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797612450884
111.
StussD. T.StethemL. L.PelchatG. (1988).
Three tests of attention and rapid information processing: An extension. Clinical Neuropsychologist,
2(3), 246–250. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854048808520107
112.
ToiM.BatsonC. D. (1982).
More evidence that empathy is a source of altruistic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
43(2), 281–292. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.43.2.281
113.
TomovaL.MajdandžićJ.HummerA.WindischbergerC.HeinrichsM.LammC. (2017).
Increased neural responses to empathy for pain might explain how acute stress increases prosociality. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience,
12(3), 401–408. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsw146
114.
Van der GraaffJ.BranjeS.De WiedM.HawkS.Van LierP.MeeusW. (2014).
Perspective taking and empathic concern in adolescence: Gender differences in developmental changes. Developmental Psychology,
50(3), 881–888. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0034325
115.
van MerriënboerJ. J. G.SwellerJ. (2005).
Cognitive load theory and complex learning: Recent developments and future directions. Educational Psychology Review,
17(2), 147–178. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-005-3951-0
116.
WickensC. D. (2002).
Multiple resources and performance prediction. Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science,
3(2), 159–177. https://doi.org/10.1080/14639220210123806
117.
WilliamsK. M.PaulhusD. L.HareR. D. (2007).
Capturing the four-factor structure of psychopathy in college students via self-report. Journal of Personality Assessment,
88(2), 205–219. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223890701268074.
118.
WölferR.CortinaK. S.BaumertJ. (2012).
Embeddedness and empathy: How the social network shapes adolescents’ social understanding. Journal of Adolescence,
35(5), 1295–1305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2012.04.015.
119.
Zaki, J., &
Ochsner, K. N.(2012).
The Neuroscience of Empathy: progress, Pitfalls and Promise. Nature Neuroscience, Nat Neurosci,
15(5), 675–680. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn.3085
ZakiJ.WeberJ.BolgerN.OchsnerK. (2009).
The neural bases of empathic accuracy. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,
106(27), 11382–11387. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0902666106
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
