The brain has been described as very resistant to change. However, why it does this has not been fully explained. In this paper, I propose that resilience to the disruption of consolidated memory is at the heart of the brain’s resistance to change, and this resilience is a consequence of its energy efficiency evolutionary adaptations. I discussed the implications of this energy efficiency adaptation on dogmatism, close-mindedness, and artificial intelligence.
AielloL. C.WheelerP. (1995) The expensive tissue hypothesis: The brain and the digestive system in human and primate evolution. Current Anthropology36: 199–221.
3.
AlberiniC. M. (2008) The role of protein synthesis during the labile phases of memory: Revisiting the skepticism. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory89(3): 234–246. doi:10.1016/j.nlm.2007.08.007.
4.
AlberiniC. M. (2011) The role of reconsolidation and the dynamic process of long-term memory formation and storage. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience5: 12. . doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2011.00012.
5.
AllenT. A.FortinN. J. (2013) The evolution of episodic memory. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America110(Suppl 2): 10379–10386. doi:10.1073/pnas.1301199110.
6.
ArtinianJ.McGauranA. M.De JaegerX.MouledousL.FrancesB.RoulletP. (2008) Protein degradation, as with protein synthesis, is required during not only long-term spatial memory consolidation but also reconsolidation. European Journal of Neuroscience27(11): 3009–3019. doi:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2008.06262.x.
7.
AttwellD.LaughlinS. B. (2001) An energy budget for signaling in the grey matter of the brain. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow & Metabolism21: 1133–1145. doi:10.1097/00004647-200110000-00001.
8.
AyalaF. J. (2008) Science, evolution, and creationism. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America105(1): 3–4. doi:10.1073/pnas.0711608105.
9.
BélangerM.AllamanI.MagistrettiP. J. (2011) Brain energy metabolism: focus on astrocyte-neuron metabolic cooperation. Cell Metabolism14(6): 724–738. doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2011.08.016.
10.
BermanD.DudaiY. (2001) Memory extinction, learning anew, and learning the new: Dissociations in the molecular machinery of learning in cortex. Science291(5512): 2417–2419. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/3082685.
11.
BursztynL. L.GaneshG.ImamizuH.KawatoM.FlanaganJ. R. (2006) Neural correlates of internal-model loading. Current Biology16(24): 2440–2445.
12.
ClarkeD. D.SokoloffL. (1999) Circulation and energy metabolism of the brain. In: SiegelG. J.AgranoffB. W.AlbersR. W.FisherS. K.UhlerM. D. (eds) Basic neurochemistry: Molecular, cellular, and medical aspects, Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott-Raven, pp. 637–669.
13.
CohenG. L. (2003) Party over policy: The dominating impact of group influence on political beliefs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology85: 808–822.
14.
CothrosN.WongJ. D.GribbleP. L. (2006) Are there distinct neural representations of object and limb dynamics?Experimental Brain Research173: 689–697.
15.
CranoW. D. (1995) Attitude strength and vested interest. In: PettyR. E.KrosnickJ. (eds) Attitude strength: Antecedents and consequences, Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, pp. 131–157.
16.
DavisH. P.SquireL. R. (1984) Protein synthesis and memory: A review. Psychological Bulletin96(3): 518–559.
17.
DobzhanskyT. H. (1973) Nothing makes sense in biology except in the light of evolution. American Biology Teacher35: 125–129.
18.
DudaiY. (2004) The neurobiology of consolidations, or, how stable is the engram?Annual Review of Psychology55: 51–86.
19.
DudaiY.MorrisR. (2000) To consolidate or not to consolidate: What are the questions. In: BolhiusJ. (ed.) Advances in cognitive sciences, Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, pp. 149–162.
20.
DuvarciS.NaderK.LeDouxJ. E. (2008) De novo mRNA synthesis is required for both consolidation and reconsolidation of fear memories in the amygdala. Learning & Memory15(10): 747–755. doi:10.1101/lm.1027208.
21.
FagotJ.CookR. G. (2006) Evidence for large long-term memory capacities in baboons and pigeons and its implications for learning and the evolution of cognition. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences103(46): 17564–17567. doi:10.1073/pnas.0605184103.
22.
FestingerL. (1957) A theory of cognitive dissonance, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
23.
FusterJ. M. (2003) More than working memory rides on long-term memory. Behavioral and Brain Sciences26(6): 737–737.
24.
Golub, M. D., Yu, B. M., & Chase, S. M. (2012). Internal models engaged by brain-computer interface control. Conference Proceedings:… Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society. IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society. Annual Conference, 2012, 1327–1330.
25.
GolubM. D.YuB. M.ChaseS. M. (2015) Brain-computer interfaces for dissecting cognitive processes underlying sensorimotor control. Current Opinion in Neurobiology37(2016): 53–58.
26.
GreenA. M.AngelakiD. E. (2010) Internal models and neural computation in the vestibular system. Experimental Brain Research200(3): 197–222.
27.
HaiderB.KrauseM. R.DuqueA.YuY.TouryanJ.MazerJ. A.McCormickD. A. (2010) Synaptic and network mechanisms of sparse and reliable visual cortical activity during nonclassical receptive field stimulation. Neuron65(1): 107–121. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2009.12.005.
28.
HarrisJ.JolivetR.AttwellD. (2012) Synaptic energy use and supply. Neuron75(5): 762–777. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2012.08.019.
29.
HasenstaubA.OtteS.CallawayE.SejnowskiT. J. (2010) Metabolic cost as a unifying principle governing neuronal biophysics. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America107(27): 12329–12334. doi:10.1073/pnas.0914886107.
30.
HaubrichJ.MachadoA.BoosF. Z.CrestaniA. P.SierraR. O.AlvaresL. O.QuillfeldtJ. A. (2017) Enhancement of extinction memory by pharmacological and behavioral interventions targeted to its reactivation. Scientific Reports7(1): 10960.
31.
HochachkaP. W. (1994) Muscles as molecular and metabolic machines, Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
32.
HovlandC. I.WeissW. (1951) The influence of source credibility on communication effectiveness. Public Opinion Quarterly15: 635–650.
33.
IndaM. C.MuravievaE. V.AlberiniC. M. (2011) Memory retrieval and the passage of time: from reconsolidation and strengthening to extinction. The Journal of Neuroscience: The Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience31(5): 1635–1643. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4736-10.2011.
34.
KandelE. R. (2001) The molecular biology of memory storage: A dialogue between genes and synapses. Science294(5544): 1030–1038.
35.
KawatoM. (1999) Internal models for motor control and trajectory planning. Current Opinion in Neurobiology9: 718–727.
36.
KawatoM.TomoeK.HiroshiI.EriN.SatoruM.ToshinoriY. (2003) Internal forward models in the cerebellum: fMRI study on grip force and load force coupling. Progress in Brain Research142: 171–188. doi:10.1016/S0079-6123(03)42013-X.
37.
KetyS. S. (1957) The general metabolism of the brain in vivo. In: RichterD. (ed.) Metabolism of the nervous system, London, England: Pergamon, pp. 221–237.
38.
KinneyJ. M.TuckerH. N. (1992) Energy metabolism: Tissue determinants and cellular corollaries, New York, NY: Raven, pp. xvi.
39.
KripkeS. A. (2011) On two paradoxes of knowledge. In: KripkeS. A. (ed.) Philosophical troubles: Collected papersVol. 1, Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, pp. 27–51.
40.
LaughlinS. B.SejnowskiT. J. (2003) Communication in neuronal networks. Science301(5641): 1870–1874. doi:10.1126/science.1089662.
41.
LevyW. B.BaxterR. A. (1996) Energy efficient neural codes. Neural Computation8: 531–543.
42.
LevyW. B.BaxterR. A. (2002) Energy-efficient neuronal computation via quantal synaptic failures. The Journal of Neuroscience: The Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience22(11): 4746–4755.
43.
LewinK. (1951) Field theory in social science, New York, NY: Harper and Row.
44.
LiuY.LinW.LiuC.LuoY.WuJ.BayleyP. J.QinS. (2016) Memory consolidation reconfigures neural pathways involved in the suppression of emotional memories. Nature Communications7: 13375. . doi:10.1038/ncomms13375.
45.
LivnehU.PazR. (2012) Amygdala-prefrontal synchronization underlies resistance to extinction of aversive memories. Neuron75(1): 133–142.
46.
McDougallW. J. (1908) An introduction to social psychology, New York, NY: Luce.
47.
McGaughJ. L. (2000) Memory—A century of consolidation. Science287: 248–251. doi:10.1126/science.287.5451.248.
48.
McKenzieS.EichenbaumH. (2011) Consolidation and reconsolidation: Two lives of memories?Neuron71(2): 224–233. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2011.06.037.
49.
MiallR. C.WolpertD. M. (1996) Forward models for physiological motor control. Neural Networks9(8): 1265–1279. doi:10.1016/S0893-6080(96)00035-4.
50.
MilekicH. M.AlberiniM. C. (2002) Temporally graded requirement for protein synthesis following memory reactivation. Neuron36: 521–525. doi:10.1016/S0896-6273(02)00976-5.
51.
NowakD. A.TopkaH.TimmannD.BoeckerH.HermsdörferJ. (2007) The role of the cerebellum for predictive control of grasping. The Cerebellum6: 7. . doi:10.1080/14734220600776379.
52.
OkanoH.TomooH.EvanB. (2000) Learning and memory. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America97(23): 12403–12404. doi:10.1073/pnas.210381897.
53.
OttatiV.PriceE. D.WilsonC.SumaktoyoN. (2015) When self-perceptions of expertise increase closed-minded cognition: The earned dogmatism effect. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology61: 131–138. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2015.08.003.
54.
QuirkG. J.ParéD.RichardsonR.HerryC.MonfilsM. H.SchillerD.VicenticA. (2010) Erasing fear memories with extinction training. The Journal of Neuroscience: The Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience30(45): 14993–14997. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4268-10.2010.
55.
RichterL.KruglanskiA. W. (2004) Motivated closed-mindedness and the emergence of culture. In: SchallerM.CrandallC. S. (eds) The psychological foundations of culture, Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, pp. 101–121.
56.
SantiniE.GeH.RenK.Peña de OrtizS.QuirkG. J. (2004) Consolidation of fear extinction requires protein synthesis in the medial prefrontal cortex. Journal of Neuroscience24: 5704–5710.
57.
ShingY. L.BrodG. (2016) Effects of prior knowledge on memory: Implications for education. Mind, Brain, and Education10: 153–161. doi:10.1111/mbe.12110.
58.
StuchlikA. (2014) Dynamic learning and memory, synaptic plasticity and neurogenesis: An update. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience8: 106. . doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00106.
59.
SuzukiA.SheenaA. J.FranklandP.ShoichiM.AlcinoS.SatoshiK. (2004) Memory reconsolidation and extinction have distinct temporal and biochemical signatures. Journal of Neuroscience24(20): 4787–4795. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5491-03.2004.
60.
TaberC. S.LodgeM. (2006) Motivated skepticism in the evaluation of political beliefs. American Journal of Political Science50: 755–769.
61.
TetlockP. E. (2005) Expert political judgment: How good is it? How can we know?, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
62.
TurnerJ. C. (1991) Social influence, Buckingham, England: Open University Press.
63.
van KesterenM. T. R.RijpkemaM.RuiterD. J.FernándezG. (2010) Retrieval of associative information congruent with prior knowledge is related to increased medial prefrontal activity and connectivity. Journal of Neuroscience30(47): 15888–15894. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2674-10.2010.
64.
van KesterenM. T. R.RuiterD. J.FernándezG.HensonR. N. (2012) How schema and novelty augment memory formation. Trends in Neurosciences35: 211–219. doi:10.1016/j.tins.2012.02.001.
65.
van ProoijenJ. W.KrouwelA. (2017) Extreme political beliefs predict dogmatic intolerance. Social Psychological and Personality Science8: 292–300. doi:10.1177/1948550616671403.
66.
VeblenT. (1899) The theory of the leisure class: An economic study of institutions, New York, NY: Macmillan.
67.
ViannaM. R.SzapiroG.McGaughJ. L.MedinaJ. H.IzquierdoI. (2001) Retrieval of memory for fear-motivated training initiates extinction requiring protein synthesis in the rat hippocampus. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences98(21): 12251–12254. Retrieved from http://m.pnas.org/content/98/21/12251.full.
68.
WangS. H.MorrisR. G. (2010) Hippocampal-neocortical interactions in memory formation, consolidation, and reconsolidation. Annual Review of Psychology61: 49–79.
69.
WebsterD. M.KruglanskiA. W. (1995) Individual differences in need for cognitive closure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology67: 1049–1062. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.67.6.1049.
70.
WeibelE. R. (2000) Symmorphosis: On form and function in shaping life, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, pp. xiii.
71.
WitneyA. G. (2004) Internal models for bi-manual tasks. Human Movement Science23(5): 747–770. doi:10.1016/j.humov.2004.10.009.
72.
WolpertD. M.GhahramaniZ.JordanM. I. (1995) An internal model for sensorimotor integration. Science269(5232): 1880–1882. doi:10.1126/science.7569931.
73.
WolpertD. M.MiallR. C.KawatoM. (1998) Internal models in the cerebellum. Trends in Cognitive Sciences2: 338–347.
74.
YuY.HillA. P.McCormickD. A. (2012) Warm body temperature facilitates energy efficient cortical action potentials. PLoS Computational Biology8(4): e1002456. . doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1002456.
