California correctional agencies handle an estimated 22,000 adults and juveniles with mental retardation (MR)—or 2% of all probationers and 4% of all those in custody. MR inmates in California are not usually identified or given specialized programming. A lawsuit, Clark and Woods v. California, was recently filed against the California Department of Corrections on behalf of all MR inmates, and this suit has created renewed policy interest in this population. Studies show that MR offenders are more likely to be convicted, receive a prison sentence, and serve a greater portion of their prison term than nondisabled offenders. Sentencing low-risk MR persons to intermediate sanctions may save money and reduce recidivism rates. The Americans With Disabilities Act (ADA) requires that all corrections agencies establish screening and rehabilitation programs specifically for MR offenders. Such policies will create a fairer system—one that provides equal opportunity, protection from victimization, and appropriate treatment.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
American Association on Mental Deficiency (AAMD). (1983). Manual on terminology and classification in mental retardation. Washington DC: Author.
2.
Americans With Disabilities Act (ADA). (1990). 42 USC § 12101.
3.
Association of Retarded Citizens (Arc). (1992). Access to justice and fair treatment under the criminal law for people with mental retardation: Position statement. Arlington, TX: Arc National Headquarters.
4.
Braddock, D., Hemp, R., Bacheldner, L., & Fujiura, G., (1995). The state of the states in developmental disabilities. Washington DC: American Association on Mental Retardation.
5.
Brown, B. S., & Courtless T. F. (1971). The mentally retarded offender (DHEW Publication No. 72-90-39). Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.
6.
Bureau of Justice Statistics. (1995). HIV in prisons and jails, 1993 (Bulletin NCJ-152765). Washington, DC: Department of Justice.
7.
Bureau of Justice Statistics. (1996). Correctional populations in the United States, 1994 (Bulletin NCJ-1600091). Washington, DC: Department of Justice.
8.
Bureau of Justice Statistics. (1997). Prisoners in 1996 (Bulletin NCJ-164619). Washington, DC: Department of Justice.
9.
Clark and. Woods v. California, No 12153529, U.S. Dist. April 1996.
10.
Conley, R. W., Luckasson, R., & Bouthilet, G. N. (Eds.). (1992). The criminal justice system and mental retardation. Baltimore, MD: Brooks.
11.
Edwards, W., & Reynolds, L. A. (1997). Defending and advocating on behalf of individuals with “mild” mental retardation in the criminal justice system. IMPACT, 10(2) 12-13.
12.
Fryers, T. (1993). Epidemiological thinking in mental retardation: Issues in taxonomy and population frequency. In N. W. Bray (Ed.), International review of research in mental retardation. Novato, CA: Academic Therapy.
13.
Goldkamp, J. (1979). Two classes of accused. Cambridge, MA: Ballinger.
14.
Hagan, J. (1993). The social embeddedness of crime and unemployment. Criminology, 31(4).
15.
Hall, J. N. (1992). Correctional services for inmates with mental retardation: Challenge or catastrophe? In R. W. Conley, R. Luckasson, & G. N. Bouthilet. (Eds.), The criminal justice system and mental retardation (pp. 167-190). Baltimore, MD: Brooks.
16.
Haskins, J., & Friel, C. (1973). Project CAMIO: The mentally retarded in an adult correctional institutions. Huntsville, TX: Sam Houston State University Press.
17.
Illinois Mentally Retarded and Mentally Ill Task Force. (1988). Mentally retarded and mentally ill offender task force report. Springfield, IL: Illinois Mentally Retarded and Mentally Ill Task Force, Department of Social Services.
18.
Lakin, C. K., & Prouty, R. (1996). Trends in institution closure. IMPACT, 9(1) 4-5.
19.
Lampert, R. O. (1987). The mentally retarded offender in prison. Justice Professional, 2(1), 60-69.
20.
Laski, F. J. (1992). Sentencing the offender with mental retardation: Honoring the imperative for intermediate punishments and probation. In R. W. Conley, R. Luckasson, & G. N. Bouthilet. (Eds.), The criminal justice system and mental retardation. Baltimore, MD: Brooks.
21.
Lasley, J. R., Hooper, M., & Dery, G. M. (1997). The California criminal justice system. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
22.
Legislative Analysts Office. (1997-1998). California budget analysis: Perspective on state expenditures—an overview of state expenditures. http://www.lao.ca.gov/part_4a_expenditures_pi97.html.
23.
Mauer, M. (1990). Young Black men and the criminal justice system: A growing national problem. Washington, DC: The Sentencing Project.
24.
Mauer, M., & Huling, T. (1995). Young Black Americans and the criminal justice system: Five years later. Washington, DC: The Sentencing Project.
25.
McAfee, J., & Gural, M. (1988). Individuals with mental retardation and the criminal justice system: The view from the state attorney's general. Mental Retardation, 6, 5-12.
26.
McGee, J., & Menolascino, F. (1992). The evaluation of defendants with mental retardation in the criminal justice system. In R. W. Conley, R. Luckasson, & G. N. Bouthilet. (Eds.), The criminal justice system and mental retardation. Baltimore, MD: Brooks.
27.
McShane, M. D. (1996). Mentally ill prisoners. In M. D. McShane & F. P. Williams III, (Eds.), Encyclopedia of American prisons. New York: Garland.
28.
Montgomery, R. H. (1982). Curriculum for use in training criminal justice personnel. In M. B. Santamour & P. S. Watson (Eds.), The retarded offender. New York: Praeger.
29.
Moschella, S. (1982). The mentally retarded offender: Law enforcement and court proceedings. In M. B. Santamour & P. S. Watson (Eds.), The retarded offender. New York: Praeger.
30.
New York State Office of Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities. (1987). Mentally retarded offenders: Considerations for public policy. Albany, GA: Author.
31.
Nirje, B. (1969). The normalization principal and its human management implications. In R. B. Kigel & W. Wolfensberger (Eds.), Changing patterns in residential services for the mentally retarded. Washington, DC: President's Committee on Mental Retardation.
32.
Petersilia, J. (1997a). Diverting nonviolent prisoners to intermediate sanctions: The impact on California prison admissions and corrections costs. In E. Rubin (Ed.), Minimizing harm as a goal for crime policy in California: A CPS Crime Policy Project Report. Berkeley, CA: California Policy Seminar.
33.
Petersilia, J. (1997b). Probation in the United States. In M. Tonry (Ed.), Crime and Justice: A Review of Research (vol. 22, pp. 149-200). University of Chicago Press.
34.
Petrella, R. (1992) Defendants with mental retardation in the forensic services system. In R. W. Conley, R. Luckasson, & G. N. Bouthilet. (Eds.), The criminal justice system and mental retardation. Baltimore, MD: Brooks.
35.
President's Commission on Mental Retardation. (1988). Preventing the new morbidity: A guide for state planning for the prevention of mental retardation and related disabilities associated with socioeconomic conditions. Washington DC: Department of Health and Human Services.
36.
President's Committee on Mental Retardation. (1991). Citizens with mental retardation and the criminal justice system: Report to the president (DHHS Publication No. 91-21046). Washington DC: Department of Health and Human Services.
37.
Reynolds, L. A. & Berkobien, R. (1997). The Arc: Tackling criminal justice issues at the national, state and local levels. IMPACT, 10(2): 8-9.
38.
Rockowitz, R. J. (1986). Developmentally disabled offenders: Issues in developing and maintaining services. Prison Journal, 66(1), 19-23.
39.
Rowan, B. (1976). Corrections. In M. Kindredet al. (Eds.), The mentally retarded citizen and the law. New York: Free Press.
40.
Rubin, P. N., & McCampbell, S. W. (1994). The Americans With Disabilities Act and criminal ustice: Providing inmate service. Washington DC: Department of Justice.
41.
Rubin, P. N., & McCampbell, S. W. (1995). The Americans With Disabilities Act and Criminal Justice: Mental Disabilities and Corrections. Washington DC: Department of Justice.
42.
Ruiz v. Estelle. (1980). 503 F. Supp. 1265, S.D. Texas, cert.denied, 103 Ct. 1438.
43.
Santamour, M. B. (1986). The offender with mental retardation. Prison Journal, (7) 3-18.
44.
Santamour, M. B., & Watson, P. S. (1982). The retarded offender. New York; Praeger.
45.
Santamour, M. B., & West, B. (1979). Retardation and criminal justice: A training manual for criminal justice personnel. Washington DC: President's Committee on Mental Retardation.
46.
Sobsey, D. (1994). Violence and abuse in the lives of people with disabilities. Baltimore, MD: Brooks.
47.
Sobsey, D., & Doe, T. (1991). Patterns of sexual abuse and assault. Journal of sexuality and disability, 9(3), 243-259.
48.
Sorensen, D. (1997). The invisible victims. IMPACT, 10(2): 1-2.
49.
Talent, A., & Keldgord, R. (1975, September). The mentally retarded probationer. Federal Probation, 2, 39-46.
50.
Toberg, M. A. (1992). Pretrial release: A national evaluation of practice and outcomes. McLean, VA: Lazar Institute.
51.
Tonry, M., & Lynch, M. (1996). Intermediate sanctions. In Crime and Justice: A Review of Research (vol. 20). University of Chicago Press.
52.
U.S. Department of Commerce. (1994, March). Current population report. Washington DC: Government Printing Office.
53.
Veneziano, L., & Veneziano C. (1996). Disabled Inmates. In M. D. McShane & F. P. Williams III (Eds.), Encyclopedia of American prisons. New York: Garland.
54.
Veneziano, L., Veneziano, C., & Tribolet. C. (1987). The special needs of prison inmates with handicaps: An assessment. Journal of Offender Counseling, Services, and Rehabilitation12: 61-72.
55.
White, D., & Wood, H. (1986). The Lancaster County, Pennsylvania Mentally Retarded Offender's Program. The Prison Journal, 66(1): 77-84.
56.
Widom, C. S. (1995). Victims of childhood sexual abuse—later criminal consequences (National Institute of Justice). Washington, DC: Department of Justice.
57.
Wolford, B., Nelson, M., & Rutherford, R. (1997). Developmentally disabled offenders. In M. D. McShane & F. P. Williams III (Eds.), Encyclopedia of American prisons. New York: Garland.
58.
Zeleny, L.D. (1933). Feeblemindedness in criminal conduct. American Journal of Sociology, 139: 564-576.
59.
Zimring, F., & Hawkins, G. (1997). Distinguishing crime from violence. In E. Rubin (Ed.), Minimizing harm as a goal for crime policy in California: A CPS crime policy project report. Berkeley, CA: California Policy Seminar.
