Sage Journals: Discover world-class research

Abstract

Learned helplessness can significantly impact mental health and wellbeing, and understanding its predictors and buffers is key for developing effective recognition and intervention programs. This study examined the predictive role of fear of crime and perceived interpersonal social support (ISS) in learned helplessness. Results showed that fear of crime was positively associated with learned helplessness, while perceived ISS was negatively associated with it. However, perceived ISS did not moderate the relationship between fear of crime and learned helplessness. These findings highlight the independent roles of fear of crime and social support in learned helplessness. Implications of the findings are discussed.

Keywords

Fear of crime social support learned helplessness

Introduction

Learned helplessness is a behavioral response to frequent and uncontrollable stressful events characterized by counterproductive, if not harmful, acquiescence (Seligman and Peterson, 2001). Historically, the concept has been linked to the experience of physically aversive stimuli, such as electric shocks (Seligman, 1972; Seligman and Beagley, 1975). However, research has demonstrated that learned helplessness can also be triggered by psychological distress (Drugan et al., 1985). One source of psychological distress that has yet to be thoroughly investigated is fear of crime. Crime victimization represents a salient threat, and the fear it inspires can negatively impact wellbeing (Hale, 1996; Roberts et al., 2012; Stafford et al., 2007). Evidence suggests that social support can serve as a buffer against learned helplessness and protect mental health in the aftermath of trauma and stress (Moak and Agrawal, 2010; Wu and Tu, 2019). The present study will thus investigate the association between fear of crime, perceived interpersonal social support (ISS), and learned helplessness.

Learned helplessness

Learned helplessness was first observed through animal experimentation. Specifically, dogs that had previously experienced inescapable electric shocks later failed to escape additional shocks despite ample opportunity to do so (Seligman, 1972). It is hypothesized that the dogs, having been shocked regardless of their actions (i.e., exposed to inescapable shocks), consequently learned that their actions were ultimately meaningless (Seligman and Peterson, 2001). This expectation of a separation between their responses and their overall outcome was then applied to future events, explaining their lack of escape attempts (Seligman and Peterson, 2001). Similar results have been achieved in later replications (Dinges et al., 2017; Overmeier, 1968; Seligman and Beagley, 1975; Seligman and Maier, 1967).

Learned helplessness has also been recorded in human subjects (Hiroto, 1974; Hiroto and Seligman, 1975). In one experiment, participants were divided into three groups: those who could not escape unpleasant tones, those who could, and a control group not exposed to tones (Hiroto, 1974). When later given the opportunity to avoid further unpleasant tones, those initially unable to escape failed to do so over 50% of the time (Hiroto, 1974). In contrast, those who initially escaped the tones failed only 13% of the time (Hiroto, 1974). These results parallel past studies where subjects exposed to uncontrollable stressors (shocks or unpleasant tones) subsequently gave up. The theory of learned helplessness was further developed to explain why not all individuals exposed to inescapable stressors exhibit learned helplessness. Abramson et al. (1978) highlighted the role of an individual’s explanatory/attribution style. Specifically, when individuals interpret uncontrollable stressful events as long-lasting (stable), pervasive (global), and their fault (internal), they are more likely to develop learned helplessness (Abramson et al., 1978; Seligman and Peterson, 2001). The research discussed thus far has focused on uncontrollable stressful events manifested as physically unpleasant stimuli. However, repeated psychological distress can also lead to learned helplessness and associated passivity. One study explored this using anxiogenics—substances that produce anxiety-like symptoms (Crawley et al., 1985). Rats treated with anxiogenics later exhibited significant learned helplessness, unable to escape a shuttlebox (Drugan et al., 1985). This behavior was comparable to the learned helplessness of rats exposed to inescapable electric shocks (Drugan et al., 1985). Similarly, students with high levels of test anxiety have shown learned helplessness (Lavelle et al., 1979). In these cases, anxiety and its associated discomfort acted as substitutes for electric shocks. More research is needed to determine if other forms of psychological distress can also trigger learned helplessness. This study will focus on fear, which is symptomatically similar to anxiety but conceptually distinct (Steimer, 2002).

The real-world implications of learned helplessness have been widely studied. It has been used to explain why some victims of domestic violence do not leave their partners (Walker, 1984). The recurring abuse is seen as an inescapable event and interpreted as internal, stable, and global. The victims consequently believe their actions are futile, resulting in continued suffering (Seligman and Peterson, 2001). Research supports this application, showing that female victims of domestic abuse are significantly more passive and worse at problem-solving than controls (Claerhout et al., 1982; Launius and Lindquist, 1988). Learned helplessness and depression share many symptoms, including decreased motivation and feelings of worthlessness (Maier and Seligman, 2016). Similar impairments in problem-solving are seen in non-depressed participants exposed to inescapable noise (inducing helplessness) and in depressed patients (Miller and Seligman, 1975). Thus, learned helplessness may be a significant precursor to poor mental health.

Fear of crime

Fear of crime refers to feelings of concern, anxiety, and worry about the possibility of becoming the victim of a crime (Etopio and Berthelot, 2022). These feelings can stem from both direct and indirect crime victimization. Direct victimization encompasses personal experiences of crime (Fox et al., 2009; Kennedy and Sacco, 1998). Individuals who have experienced crime are understandably more concerned about further victimization, as they are intimately aware of its consequences. Indeed, crime victims are more than twice as likely to be afraid of crime compared to non-victims (Tseloni, 2007). Furthermore, national and international survey data support a positive relationship between direct experience of victimization and perceptions of safety (Sironi and Bonazzi, 2016; Sookram et al., 2011).

Individuals can also develop a fear of crime through indirect or vicarious victimization, which occurs via media or interpersonal communication (Fox et al., 2009). The media often employs shock and sensationalism to capture attention, leading to an oversaturation of crime-related content and stories in television, movies, and news outlets (Jewkes, 2015). This prolonged and unavoidable exposure to crime can heighten fear and inflate perceptions of crime prevalence (Scott, 2003). For example, Gordon and Heath (1981) found that readers of newspapers with extensive crime coverage reported greater levels of fear of crime. This relationship has been confirmed in various media formats (Lowry et al., 2003; O’Keefe and Reid-Nash, 1987; Williams and Dickinson, 1993). Notably, recent increases in fear of crime have not corresponded with actual increases in crime rates but rather with higher levels of crime reporting (Lowry et al., 2003).

Individuals with high fear of crime tend to restrict their behaviors, activities, and avoid areas they consider high-risk or unsafe (Liska et al., 1988). These coping mechanisms, including prolonged isolation and reduced physical activity, can have detrimental effect on both physical and psychological health (Hale, 1996; Pearson and Breetzke, 2014; Roberts et al., 2012; Stafford et al., 2007). For instance, civil servants with high fear of crime were 1.93 times more likely to suffer from depression (Stafford et al., 2007). Additionally, a study in New Zealand found significant declines in physical well-being associated with heightened fear of crime (Pearson and Breetzke, 2014).

In the present study, we expect that fear of crime will be a key driver of learned helplessness. Fear of criminal victimization is a significant source of distress and discomfort (Pearson and Breetzke, 2014; Stafford et al., 2007). The pervasive presence of crime in the media and everyday conversation may exacerbate this fear, instilling feelings of futility (Scott, 2003). For example, individuals may feel that their efforts to stay safe are futile when crime is so pervasive. This combination of an aversive experience (fear) and feelings of futility could promote passivity and other behaviors characteristic of learned helplessness.

Perceived interpersonal social support

This study specifically considers perceived interpersonal social support (ISS), which refers to the support an individual believes they receive from family and friends (Moak and Agrawal, 2010). According to the buffering hypothesis, such support acts as a protective factor against negative mental health outcomes (e.g., depression, anxiety, PTSD), especially following experiences of stress and trauma (Liu et al., 2021; Panagioti et al., 2014; Roohafza et al., 2014). For example, individuals who reported the same level of trauma but perceived lower interpersonal social support exhibited higher rates of mental health problems (Moak and Agrawal, 2010).

Perceived ISS is linked to reduced negative outcomes following various types of victimization, including violent crime, property-related crime, and rape (Liu et al., 2017; Worsley et al., 2019; Yap and Devilly, 2004). It has been shown to protect victims from anxiety, fear, and stress (Kaniasty and Norris, 1992; Ruch and Leon, 1986; Yap and Devilly, 2004). A recent study also found that high-quality social ties (a factor that can influence levels of perceived ISS) is inversely correlated with fear of crime (Yuan et al., 2024). Overall, this suggests that perceived ISS – a significant moderator against the negative consequences of criminal victimization – may similarly moderate the effects of fear related to criminal victimization.

Additionally, perceived ISS can specifically protect against learned helplessness. One study demonstrated that it moderates the negative relationship between self-efficacy and learned helplessness among students; those with high levels of perceived ISS were better at inhibiting learned helplessness compared with those with low levels of social support (Wu and Tu, 2019). Similar protective effects were observed in patients diagnosed with coronary heart disease, acute myocardial infarctions, and lung cancer. The more social support they perceived was available, the less helplessness they exhibited (Huang et al., 2024; Nuraeni et al., 2021; Smallheer and Dietrich, 2019).

The mechanisms by which perceived ISS improves mental health outcomes are still emerging. However, it is likely that the effect arises from the sense of security and confidence derived from the connection with loved ones (Huang et al., 2024; Liu et al., 2021; Moak and Agrawal, 2010). In the context of fear of crime, friends and significant others can provide an outlet for expressing emotions, receiving advice, and experiencing solidarity (Harandi et al., 2017; McGuigan and Horigan, 2021). Furthermore, the presence of a supportive network can prevent maladaptive coping mechanisms such as isolation and avoidance (Harandi et al., 2017). When individuals believe they are surrounded by a supportive and understanding environment, they may be more inclined to remain more active and feel empowered to confront their fears (Xie et al., 2023).

The present study

Several motivations underpin this study. While previous research has shown that substance-induced anxiety can lead to learned helplessness (Drugan et al., 1985), it is important to distinguish anxiety from fear. Anxiety is a psychological response to internal emotional states or potential dangers, whereas fear is directed towards specific external threats (Steimer, 2002). Thus, more research is needed to determine whether fear – particularly the widespread and intense fear of crime – can also trigger learned helplessness. Additionally, most studies on perceived interpersonal social support (ISS) have primarily focused on its moderating effect in response to specific traumatic events rather than more complex and widespread fears influenced by both personal and societal factors. Moreover, no research to date has simultaneously explored the interplay between fear of crime, perceived ISS, and learned helplessness. Filling this knowledge gap could thus provide valuable insights.

This study posits two hypotheses. First, it is hypothesized that fear of crime will be a positive predictor of learned helplessness, such that individuals with a heightened fear of crime will exhibit higher levels of learned helplessness. Second, it is expected that perceived ISS will moderate the relationship between fear of crime and learned helplessness. Specifically, when individuals report high levels of perceived ISS, the positive association between fear of crime and learned helplessness will be attenuated; conversely, this association will be more pronounced when perceived ISS levels are low.

Methods

Participants

Recruitment was conducted in the United Kingdom via social media and university-affiliated recruitment forums. Given that fear of crime is a widely experienced phenomenon, participation was open to anyone over the age of 18. A total of 138 responses were collected, but incomplete responses were filtered out (N = 35). A final sample of 103 participants (65 women, 30 men, 8 non-binary) was thus used for data analysis. The ages of participants ranged from 18 to 72 years (M = 29.92, SD = 15.16). Participants came from a variety of ethnic backgrounds, with the majority being White (N = 59) and then Asian or Asian British (N = 23). Most participants had at least a bachelor’s degree (51 with bachelor’s, 13 with master’s, 1 with professional degree, and 4 with doctorate).

Materials

Fear of crime

A scale developed by Etopio and Berthelot (2022) was selected to measure fear of crime. Ten statements (e.g., “Crime makes me feel restless”) were rated on a six-point Likert scale (one = very untrue for me, six = very true for me). The scores for each item were summed, and a higher final score indicated a higher fear of crime. This study reported a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of α = 0.946, indicating excellent internal consistency.

Learned helplessness

The Learned Helplessness Scale (LHS) is composed of 20 statements, such as “I can find solutions to difficult problems” (Quinless and Nelson, 1988). Participants indicated on a four-point Likert scale how much they agreed or disagreed with each statement (four = strongly agree, one = strongly disagree). Select items were reverse-coded as well. A total score was calculated, with higher scores signifying higher levels of learned helplessness (Quinless and Nelson, 1988). A Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of 0.88 was found for this scale.

Perceived interpersonal social support (Perceived ISS)

A 12-item version of the Interpersonal Support Evaluation List (ISEL-12) was included in the survey (Cohen et al., 1985). This scale is a shortened version of its original form with 40 items (Cohen and Hoberman, 1983). Participants were provided with 12 statements, such as “If I were sick, I could easily find someone to help me with my daily chores” (Cohen et al., 1985). They then rated how accurate each statement was to their lives on a four-point Likert scale (one = definitely false, four = definitely true). Select items were reverse-coded. A total score was calculated and a higher score indicated a higher level of perceived ISS. This study found a good internal consistency of α = .88.

Control variables

In the present study’s model, age was included a demographic covariate. Additionally, we controlled for depression and anxiety due to their potential influences on learned helplessness. The links between depression and learned helplessness is well-established and could result in high learned helplessness scores unrelated to the predictor variable (Maier and Seligman, 2016; Miller and Seligman, 1975). Similar issues are observed with anxiety and fear (Steimer, 2002). Therefore, these variables were controlled to ensure the results accurately reflected the relationship between the fear of crime, learned helplessness, and perceived ISS. We used the validated, ultra-brief Patient Health Questionnaire for Depression and Anxiety (PHQ-4; Kroenke et al., 2009), which includes two items assessing depression (e.g., “little interest or pleasure in doing things”; r_s = 0.68, p < .001, α = 0.84) and two items assessing anxiety (e.g., “Not being able to stop or control worrying”; r_s = 0.80, p < .001, α = 0.90). We reported the correlation coefficients between the two items of each subscale, as the most appropriate reliability statistic for a two-item scale is the Spearman-Brown coefficient, along with the standardized coefficient alpha (Eisinga et al., 2013). Participants indicated how frequently they experienced each problem over the past 2 weeks on a scale from zero (not at all) to three (nearly every day).

Procedure

A correlational, cross-sectional survey design was utilized. The predictor variable was ‘fear of crime’ and the outcome variable was ‘learned helplessness’. The moderator variable was ‘perceived interpersonal social support (ISS)’. The survey was created using the online software Qualtrics. An information sheet summarized the purpose of the study and what participation entailed. Participants were informed of the university’s data management and protection guidelines and instructed that participation was completely anonymous and voluntary. They were assigned random, anonymous ID numbers to reference if they wished to halt or rescind their responses. Furthermore, the contact information of the principal investigator, primary researcher, and the institution’s Research Ethics Committee was provided for any questions or concerns. The subsequent consent form required participants to confirm they were giving informed consent before progressing to the survey. Participants then responded to the fear of crime scale, LHS, ISEL-12, and PHQ-4. A battery of optional demographic questions was displayed last and once the survey was completed, a debrief was given.

The survey included potentially distressing topics of mental health and fear of criminal victimization. To safeguard participants’ well-being, no questions were asked about personal experiences of victimization. Participants had the option to skip any questions they found particularly upsetting. Additionally, the information sheet provided mental health and victim support resources. This project was approved by the [authors’ institution] Research Ethics Committee.

Analysis and results

Table 1 presents correlations among variables, means, and standard deviations.

Table 1.

Correlations, means, and standard deviations for study variables.

	1	2	3	4	5	6
1. Learned helplessness	−
2. Depression	0.51***	−
3. Anxiety	0.47***	0.66***	−
4. Fear of crime	0.52***	0.49***	0.55***	−
5. Perceived ISS	−0.44***	−0.24**	−0.20*	−0.22*	−
6. Age	−.40***	−.40***	−.38***	−.34***	.12	−
M	42.27	1.82	2.27	31.13	38.21
SD	8.18	1.87	2.01	11.58	6.59

Hypotheses testing: moderated regression

All predictor variables were first standardized into z-scores to ensure they contributed equally to the analysis. Statistical assumptions of normality, linearity, homoscedasticity, independence, and multicollinearity were then tested. The histogram was bell-shaped, the normal probability plot was linear, and the residual scatterplot was evenly distributed. The Durbin-Watson statistic was 2.20 (between the normal range of 1.50-2.50) and all VIF scores were less than 10. All assumptions were thus met (Tabachnick and Fidell, 2013).

A moderated regression analysis was conducted on the data using SPSS PROCESS macro version 4.2 (Hayes 2022; model 1) with 5000 bootstrap samples and 95% confidence intervals (see Table 2). Fear of crime was entered as the predictor variable; perceived ISS as the moderator variable; learned helplessness as the outcome variable; and depression, anxiety, and age as the control variables. Overall, 47% of the variability in learned helplessness was explained by the model, R² = 0.471, F(6, 96) = 14.245, p < .001. Fear of crime was positively associated with learned helplessness (β = 0.265, SE = 0.094, t = 2.812, p = .006, CI_95%[0.078, 0.451]). Perceived interpersonal social support (ISS) was negatively associated with learned helplessness (β = −0.301, SE = 0.078, t = −3.834, p < .001, CI_95%[-0.456, −0.145]. The interaction term between fear of crime and perceived ISS was not significant (β = −0.010, SE = 0.084, t = −0.123, p = .903, CI_95%[-0.177, 0.157).

Table 2.

Moderated regression results.

						CI95%
Predictors	R ²	F	β	SE	t	LLCI	ULCI
	.47	14.25^***
Depression			.19	.10	1.79	−.02	.39
Anxiety			.08	.11	.77	−.13	.29
Age			−.17	.08	−2.03	−.33	−.003
Fear of crime			.27^**	.09	2.82	.08	.45
Perceived ISS			−.30^***	.08	−3.84	−.46	−.16
FOC x perceived ISS			−.01	.08	−.12	−.18	.16

Note. Perceived ISS = Perceived interpersonal social support, FOC = fear of crime. **p < .01, ***p < .001.

Discussion

Summary of findings

The purpose of this study was to examine the association between fear of crime, learned helplessness, and perceived interpersonal social support (ISS) whilst controlling depression, anxiety, and age. It was hypothesized that fear of crime would be positively associated with learned helplessness, and that perceived ISS would moderate this relationship. Results from the moderated regression analysis supported the first hypothesis, showing that increased fear of crime was significantly associated with increased learned helplessness. Perceived ISS was also found to be significantly negatively associated with learned helplessness. However, perceived ISS did not exert a moderating effect, leading to the rejection of the second hypothesis.

Theoretical and practical implications

Fear of crime and learned helplessness

The finding of a positive association between fear of crime and learned helplessness aligns with previous conclusions that recurring psychological distress can induce learned helplessness (Drugan et al., 1985; Lavelle et al., 1979). Similar to electric shocks, individuals may expect their actions to have little impact on alleviating negative emotional states, leading to passivity. Previous research has established anxiety (both naturally occurring and drug-induced) as a trigger for learned helplessness in both rats and humans (Drugan et al., 1985; Lavelle et al., 1979). This study extends these findings by suggesting that fear, specifically fear of crime, may also be a sufficient source of distress. The constant amplification of crime in the media, coupled with the consequences of victimization, likely fosters pessimistic fear and perceptions of crime as widespread, persistent, and unresponsive to intervention (Lowry et al., 2003; Seligman and Peterson, 2001).

The significant real-world consequences of fear of crime are also underscored. Professionals in criminal justice and mental healthcare typically prioritize direct victims when addressing the impact of crime, which is understandable (Sironi and Bonazzi, 2016; Sookram et al., 2011; Tseloni, 2007). However, this study and prior literature reveal that the mere existence of crime and the fear it generates are associated with deteriorating wellbeing (Pearson and Breetzke, 2014; Roberts et al., 2012; Stafford et al., 2007). Learned helplessness is particularly concerning because it not only causes harm independently but is also linked to various other psychological and physical conditions (Bargai et al., 2007; Maier and Seligman, 2016). For instance, crime-induced learned helplessness could lead individuals to abandon self-protective and healthy behaviors they deem 'worthless' against inevitable victimization, potentially creating a self-fulfilling prophecy and exacerbating fear and suffering. Therefore, attention and care should also be directed towards individuals highly likely to feel afraid of, and vulnerable to, crime to improve their outcomes and safeguard their welfare.

Perceived ISS and learned helplessness

The observation that perceived interpersonal social support (ISS) is negatively associated with learned helplessness aligns with existing data (Nuraeni et al., 2021; Smallheer and Dietrich, 2019; Wu and Tu, 2019). This finding contributes to the growing evidence of the mental health benefits of social support. Emotional comfort and the resources provided by interpersonal relationships likely mitigate the development and persistence of pessimism and dejection. Although the precise mechanisms remain unclear, several plausible explanations exist. For example, friends and family may offer reassurance that repetitive stressful events (e.g., criminal acts) are temporary, isolated, and externally caused. This informal cognitive therapy, aimed at modifying attribution style, is akin to methods discussed by Miller and Norman (1981) and Proudfoot et al. (2009). Alternatively, support from loved ones might motivate individuals to confront aversive stimuli perceived pessimistically. Wu and Tu (2019) suggested that family and teacher support moderated learned helplessness by encouraging discouraged students to remain engaged in class.

However, it is important to note that these findings should be interpreted with caution. Learned helplessness develops in response to uncontrollable, aversive stimuli (Seligman, 1972; Seligman and Peterson, 2001). Thus, the dynamic between perceived ISS and learned helplessness cannot be fully understood without taking the relevant source of stress into account. It is insufficient to claim that perceived ISS negatively predicts learned helplessness without addressing the underlying causes that lead to helplessness in the first place. Accordingly, much of existing research has utilized perceived social support as a moderating factor against learned helplessness rather than as direct predictor.

The moderating effect of Perceived ISS

The unexpected outcome that there was an absence of a moderating effect of perceived ISS in this study could be interpreted in multiple ways. While previous research has shown that perceived ISS protects against learned helplessness and other mental health issues following more direct, individual stressors (Liu et al., 2021; Moak and Agrawal, 2010; Nuraeni et al., 2021; Panagioti et al., 2014; Roohafza et al., 2014; Smallheer and Dietrich, 2019; Wu and Tu, 2019), our findings may challenge this in the context of fear of crime. Indeed, there was evidence that perceived ISS failed to mitigate the negative consequences of fear of crime on the well-being of the elderly (Yin, 1982). In line with this, our study also observed that the relationship between fear of crime and learned helplessness was significant when controlling the influence of perceived ISS. This suggests that perceived ISS may simply not be an effective and sufficient moderator specifically against fear of crime and its negative effects. One possible explanation is that when faced with a serious and uncontrollable threat like crime, support from family and friends may seem powerless. As a result, individuals’ fear remains unassuaged, leading to passivity. Additionally, fear of crime’s hypothetical and anticipatory nature might limit the effectiveness of social support, as individuals may prefer proactive solutions over reactive soothing.

Nevertheless, our findings have implications for therapeutic applications of social support. While maintaining and relying on interpersonal relationships is often encouraged to enhance mental health and resilience in the face of stress (Reblin and Uchino, 2009), our results indicate that social support may not always be effective as a standalone intervention. Clinicians should be mindful of the compatibility and practicality of social support in relation to a patient’s respective source of distress and recognize the potential need for additional therapeutic strategies. Likewise, friends and family should be aware that their presence and assistance may not always be sufficient to address certain types of fear or distress.

Limitations and future directions

Several limitations must be acknowledged when discussing this study. A notorious drawback to both correlational and cross-sectional research is their inability to determine causation (Howitt and Cramer, 2020). The researchers therefore stress that the observed strong relationship between fear of crime and learned helplessness cannot be presumed as causal, nor can its temporal sequence be determined. Future experimental studies should directly manipulate participants’ levels of fear of crime using techniques such as scrambled sentences (Shariff and Norenzayan, 2007). Any subsequent changes in learned helplessness could then be attributed to fear of crime rather than coincidence. Longitudinal research is also recommended, as it could help establish the causal sequence (i.e., that changes in fear of crime precede changes in learned helplessness).

The limitations of the sample’s size and demographic makeup must also be acknowledged. Given the cross-sectional design of this study, a larger sample size is essential for the reliability of a moderated regression model (Baranger et al., 2023). Additionally, participants were predominantly white and from Western countries and their resulting data may not be sensitive to any potential cultural differences regarding fear of crime and learned helplessness. For example, research has shown that individuals from Western cultures are more likely to value and experience high arousal emotions such as fear, alarm, and distress compared to those from Eastern cultures (Lim, 2016). Future research should aim to recruit considerably larger and more diverse samples to establish and improve the generalizability of these findings.

The scales used in the survey also pose limitations to the study’s findings. Measures such as the fear of crime scale (Etopio and Berthelot, 2022), LHS (Quinless and Nelson, 1988), ISEL-12 (Cohen et al., 1985), and PHQ-4 (Kroenke et al., 2009) rely on self-report, which, while practical, may be subject to biases. Participants might struggle with introspection, potentially overestimating perceived ISS or presenting themselves in a favorable light (social desirability bias). Despite efforts to ensure anonymity and confidentiality, these biases could affect the internal validity of the data (Ried et al., 2022).

Future research avenues unrelated to these limitations include exploring how fear of crime varies by direct versus indirect victimization (Fox et al., 2009). Indirect victimization often triggers more pronounced fear of crime, which is disproportionately high compared to actual crime rates (Lowry et al., 2003; Tseloni et al., 2010). Investigating these distinct sources of fear separately could provide deeper insights into their relationships with learned helplessness, albeit with ethical considerations to minimize distress.

Exploring additional moderators is also crucial. For instance, consider the role of trust in the police (Alda et al., 2017; Luengas and Ruprah, 2008). Individuals who fear crime but have high confidence in the police’s effectiveness may be less prone to learned helplessness due to enhanced perceptions of safety and reduced vulnerability. Socioeconomic status (SES; occupation, income, education) could also function similarly (Macassa et al., 2023). Individuals with more resources to protect themselves may experience less helplessness, even if they are fearful. Conversely, SES may increase an individual’s perception of their vulnerability (i.e., more wealth and resources may make one more likely target for crime) and subsequently exacerbate learned helplessness. Indeed, data from the European Social Survey suggests that people living in societies with high income inequality experience greater fear of crime (Vauclair and Bratanova, 2017). Gaining a deeper understanding of these dynamics could help mitigate stress and mental health deterioration associated with fear of crime.

Conclusions

To the researcher’s knowledge, this study is the first to examine the relationship between fear of crime, perceived interpersonal social support (ISS) and learned helplessness. The moderated regression analysis indicated that fear of crime and social support were independently associated with learned helplessness but in opposite directions: fear of crime had a positive relationship with learned helplessness, whereas perceived ISS had a negative relationship. However, perceived ISS did not moderate the relationship between fear of crime and learned helplessness. This finding highlights the need to consider potential compatibility issues for the previously established protective role of social support. Further research should further investigate the impact of fear of crime and explore other potential moderators. These findings have practical implications for clinicians and criminal justice professionals, especially in today’s media culture, where crime-related fear is frequently amplified.

Footnotes

Author contributions

Emily Attinger (Conceptualization; Data curation; Formal analysis; Investigation; Methodology; Writing – original draft; Writing – review & editing). Chanki Moon (Conceptualization; Data curation; Formal analysis; Investigation; Methodology; Writing – review & editing).

Declaration of conflicting interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest regarding the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Ethics statement

This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Royal Holloway, University of London.

ORCID iDs

Emily Attinger

Chanki Moon

Data Availability Statement

The data for this study is available at the following link: .

References

Abramson

Seligman

MEP

Teasdale

(1978) Learned helplessness in humans: critique and reformulation. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 87(1): 49–74. DOI: 10.1037/0021-843X.87.1.49.

Alda

Bennett

Morabito

(2017) Confidence in the police and the fear of crime in the developing world. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management 40(2): 366–379.

Baranger

DAA

Finsaas

Goldstein

, et al. (2023) Tutorial: power analyses for interaction effects in cross-sectional regressions. Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science 6(3): 1–13. DOI: 10.1177/25152459231187531.

Bargai

Ben-Shakhar

Shalev

(2007) Posttraumatic stress disorder and depression in battered women: the mediating role of learned helplessness. Journal of Family Violence 22: 267–275. DOI: 10.1007/s10896-007-9078-y.

Claerhout

Elder

Janes

(1982) Problem solving skills of rural battered women. American Journal of Community Psychology 10: 605–612. DOI: 10.1007/bf00894147.

Cohen

Hoberman

(1983) Positive events and social supports as buffers of life change stress. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 13: 99–125. https://fetzer.org/sites/default/files/images/stories/pdf/selfmeasures/Self_Measures_for_Social_Support_INTERPERSONAL_SUPPORT_EVALUATION.pdf

Cohen

Mermelstein

Kamarck

, et al. (1985) Measuring the functional components of social support. In: Sarason

Sarason

(eds) Social Support: Theory, Research, and Applications. Dordrecht: Springer, 73–94.

Crawley

Ninan

Pickar

, et al. (1985) Neuropharmacological antagonism of the beta-carboline-induced “anxiety” response in rhesus monkeys. Journal of Neuroscience: The Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience 5(2): 477–485. DOI: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.05-02-00477.1985.

Dinges

Varnon

Cota

, et al. (2017) Studies of learned helplessness in honey bees (Apis mellifera ligustica). Journal of experimental psychology. Animal learning and cognition 43(2): 147–158. DOI: 10.1037/xan0000133.

10.

Drugan

Maier

Skolnick

, et al. (1985) An anxiogenic benzodiazepine receptor ligand induces learned helplessness. European Journal of Pharmacology 113(3): 453–457. DOI: 10.1016/0014-2999(85)90096-2.

11.

Eisinga

Grotenhuis

M. T

Pelzer

(2013) The reliability of a two-item scale: Pearson, Cronbach, or Spearman-Brown? International journal of public health 58: 637–642. DOI: 10.1007/s00038-012-0416-3.

12.

Etopio

Berthelot

(2022) Defining and measuring fear of crime: a new validated scale created from emotion theory, qualitative interviews, and factor analyses. Journal of Criminology, Criminal Justice, Law & Society 23(1): 46–67. DOI: 10.54555/ccjls.4234.34104.

13.

Fox

Nobles

Piquero

(2009) Gender, crime victimisation and fear of crime. Security Journal 22(1): 24–29. DOI: 10.1057/sj.2008.13.

14.

Gordon

Heath

(1981) The news business, crime and fear. In: Lewis

(ed) Reactions to Crime. Routledge, 227–250.

15.

Hale

(1996) Fear of crime: a review of the literature. International Review of Victimology 4(2): 79–150. DOI: 10.1177/026975809600400201.

16.

Harandi

Taghinasab

Nayeri

(2017) The correlation of social support and mental health: a meta-analysis. Electronic Physician 9(9): 5212–5222. DOI: 10.19082/5212.

17.

Hayes

(2022) Introduction to Mediation, Moderation, and Conditional Process Analysis: A Regression-Based Approach. 3rd edition. Guilford Publications.

18.

Hiroto

(1974) Locus of control and learned helplessness. Journal of Experimental Psychology 102(2): 187–193. DOI: 10.1037/h0035910.

19.

Hiroto

Seligman

MEP

(1975) Generality of learned helplessness in man. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 31(2): 311–327. DOI: 10.1037/h0076270.

20.

Howitt

Cramer

(2020) Research Methods in Psychology. 6th edition. Pearson.

21.

Huang

Shi

Chen

, et al. (2024) How social support influences learned helplessness in lung cancer patients: the chain mediation role of individual resilience and self-efficacy. Frontiers in Psychology 15: 1436495. DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1436495.

22.

Jewkes

(2015) Media and Crime. 3rd edition. Sage.

23.

Kaniasty

Norris

(1992) Social support and victims of crime: matching event, support, and outcome. American Journal of Community Psychology 20(2): 211–241. DOI: 10.1007/BF00940837.

24.

Kennedy

Sacco

(1998) Crime Victims in Context. Roxbury Publishing Company.

25.

Kroenke

Spitzer

Williams

JBW

, et al. (2009) An ultra-brief screening scale for anxiety and depression: the PHQ-4. Psychosomatics 50(6): 613–621. DOI: 10.1016/S0033-3182(09)70864-3.

26.

Launius

Lindquist

(1988) Learned helplessness, external locus of control, and passivity in battered women. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 3(3): 307–318. DOI: 10.1177/088626088003003004.

27.

Lavelle

Metalsky

Coyne

(1979) Learned helplessness, test anxiety, and acknowledgement of contingencies. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 88(4): 381–387. DOI: 10.1037/0021-843X.88.4.381.

28.

Lim

(2016) Cultural differences in emotion: differences in emotional arousal level between the East and the West. Integrative Medicine Research 5(2): 105–109. DOI: 10.1016/j.imr.2016.03.004.

29.

Liska

Sanchirico

Reed

(1988) Fear of crime and constrained behaviour specifying and estimating a reciprocal effects model. Social Forces 66(3): 827–837. DOI: 10.1093/sf/66.3.827.

30.

Liu

Chen

, et al. (2017) Does perceived social support mediate or moderate the relationship between victimisation and suicidal ideation among Chinese adolescents? Journal of Psychologists and Counsellors in Schools 27(1): 123–136. DOI: 10.1017/jgc.2015.30.

31.

Liu

Jiang

, et al. (2021) Social support, resilience, and self-esteem protect against common mental health problems in early adolescence. Medicine 100(4): e24334. DOI: 10.1097/MD.0000000000024334.

32.

Lowry

Nio

TCJ

Leitner

(2003) Setting the public fear agenda: a longitudinal analysis of network TV crime reporting, public perceptions of crime, and FBI crime statistics. Journal of Communication 53(1): 61–73. DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-2466.2003.tb03005.x.

33.

Luengas

Ruphrah

(2008) Fear of crime: does trust and community participation matter? Report. Inter-American Development Bank Office of Evaluation and Oversight Working Paper, USA, July. https://publications.iadb.org/en/fear-crime-does-trust-and-community-participation-matter#:∼:text=We_find_that_while_trust,affect_the_fear_of_crime

34.

Macassa

McGrath

Wijk

, et al. (2023) The association between fear of crime, educational attainment, and health. Epidemiologia 4(2): 148–162. DOI: 10.3390/epidemiologia4020016.

35.

Maier

Seligman

MEP

(2016) Learned helplessness at fifty: insights from neuroscience. Psychological Review 123(4): 349–367. DOI: 10.1037/rev0000033.

36.

McGuigan

Horigan

(2021) The Victim Recovery Journey. Understanding the Recovery Journey: Stages, Facilitators and Inhibitors of Recovery. Report. Victim Support Northern Ireland. UK, May. https://www.victimsupportni.com/site/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/Victim-recovery-journey-Final-Report.pdf

37.

Miller

Norman

(1981) Effects of attributions for success on the alleviation of learned helplessness and depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 90(2): 113–124. DOI: 10.1037/0021-843X.90.2.113.

38.

Miller

Seligman

MEP

(1975) Depression and learned helplessness in man. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 84(3): 228–238. DOI: 10.1037/h0076720.

39.

Moak

Agrawal

(2010) The association between perceived interpersonal social support and physical and mental health: results from the national epidemiological survey on alcohol and related conditions. Journal of Public Health 32(2): 191–201. DOI: 10.1093/pubmed/fdp093.

40.

Nuraeni

Suryani

Trisyani

, et al. (2021) Social and emotional support highly associated with helplessness among coronary heart disease patients. Open Access Macedonian Journal of Medical Sciences 9(6): 1–6. DOI: 10.3889/oamjms.2021.7308.

41.

Overmier

(1968) Interference with avoidance behaviour: failure to avoid traumatic shock. Journal of Experimental Psychology 78(2): 340–343. DOI: 10.1037/h0026365.

42.

O’Keefe

Reid-Nash

(1987) Crime news and real-world blues: the effects of the media on social reality. Communication Research 14(2): 147–163. DOI: 10.1177/009365087014002001.

43.

Panagioti

Gooding

Taylor

, et al. (2014) Perceived social support buffers the impact of PTSD symptoms on suicidal behaviour: implications into suicide resilience research. Comprehensive Psychiatry 55(1): 104–112. DOI: 10.1016/j.comppsych.2013.06.004.

44.

Pearson

Breetzke

(2014) The association between the fear of crime, and mental health and physical wellbeing in New Zealand. Social Indicators Research 119: 281–294. DOI: 10.1007/s11205-013-0489-2.

45.

Proudfoot

Corr

Guest

, et al. (2009) Guest DE and Dunn G (2009) Cognitive-behavioural training to change attributional style improves employee well-being, job satisfaction, productivity, and turnover. Personality and Individual Differences 46(2): 147–153. DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2008.09.018.

46.

Quinless

Nelson

(1988) Development of a measure of learned helplessness. Nursing Research 37(1): 11–15.

47.

Reblin

Uchino

(2009) Social and emotional support and its implications for health. Current Opinion in Psychiatry 21(2): 201–205. https://doi.org/10.1097%2FYCO.0b013e3282f3ad89

48.

Reid

Eckerd

Kaufmann

(2022) Social desirability bias in PSM surveys and behavioural experiments: considerations for design development and data collection. Journal of Purchasing and Supply Management 28(1): Article100743. DOI: 10.1016/j.pursup.2021.100743.

49.

Roberts

Stickley

Petticrew

, et al. (2012) The influence of concern about crime on levels of psychological distress in the former Soviet Union. Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health 66(5): 433–439. DOI: 10.1136/jech.2010.118901.

50.

Roohafza

Afshar

Kestheli

, et al. (2014) What's the role of perceived social support and coping styles in depression and anxiety? Journal of Medical Sciences 19(5): 944–949. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmc4274570/

51.

Ruch

Leon

(1986) The victim of rape and the role of life change, coping, and social support during the rape trauma syndrome. In: Hobfoll

(ed) Stress, Social Support & Women. Hemisphere Publishing, 137–152.

52.

Scott

(2003) Stranger danger: explaining women’s fear of crime. Western Criminology 4(3): 203–214. https://www.westerncriminology.org/documents/WCR/v04n3/article_pdfs/scott.pdf

53.

Seligman

(1972) Learned helplessness. Annual Review of Medicine 23(1): 407–412.

54.

Seligman

Beagley

(1975) Learned helplessness in the rat. Journal of Comparative & Physiological Psychology 88(2): 534–541. DOI: 10.1037/h0076430.

55.

Seligman

MEP

Maier

(1967) Failure to escape traumatic shock. Journal of Experimental Psychology 74(1): 1–9. DOI: 10.1037/h0024514.

56.

Seligman

MEP

Peterson

(2001) Learned helplessness. In: Smelser

Baltes

(eds) International Encyclopaedia of the Social and Behavioural Sciences. Elsevier, 8583–8586. DOI: 10.1016/B0-08-043076-7/00378-8.

57.

Shariff

Norenzayan

(2007) God is watching you: priming god concepts increases prosocial behaviour in an anonymous game. Psychological Science 18(9): 803–809. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01983.x.

58.

Sironi

Bonazzi

(2016) Direct victimisation experiences and fear of crime: a gender perspective. Peace Economics, Peace Science and Public Policy 22(2): 159–172. DOI: 10.1515/peps-2016-0008.

59.

Smallheer

Dietrich

(2019) Social support, self-efficacy, and helplessness following myocardial infarctions. Critical Care Nursing Quarterly 42(3): 246–255. DOI: 10.1097/CNQ.0000000000000265.

60.

Sookram

Saridakis

Mohammed

(2011) Do victims of crime fear crime more? Empirical evidence from the survey of living conditions (2005) of Trinidad and Tobago. Social & Economic Studies 60(2): 127–144. https://www.jstor.org/stable/41635305

61.

Stafford

Chandola

Marmot

(2007) Association between fear of crime and mental health and physical functioning. American Journal of Public Health 97(11): 2076–2081. https://doi.org/10.2105%2FAJPH.2006.097154

62.

Steimer

(2002) The biology of fear- and anxiety-related behaviours. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience 4(3): 231–249. DOI: 10.31887/DCNS.2002.4.3/tsteimer.

63.

Tabachnick

Fidell

(2013) Using Multivariate Statistics. 6th edition. Pearson.

64.

Tseloni

(2007) Fear of crime, perceived disorders and property crime: a multivariate analysis at the area level. Crime Prevention Studies 21: 163–186. https://irep.ntu.ac.uk/id/eprint/20863/

65.

Tseloni

Mailley

Farrell

, et al. (2010) Exploring the international decline in crime rates. European Journal of Criminology 7(5): 375–394. DOI: 10.1177/1477370810367014.

66.

Vauclair

Bratanova

(2017) Income inequality and fear of crime across the European region. European Journal of Criminology 14(2): 221–241. DOI: 10.1177/1477370816648993.

67.

Walker

(1984) The Battered Woman Syndrome. Springer Publishing Company.

68.

Williams

Dickinson

(1993) Fear of crime: read all about it? The relationship between newspaper crime reporting and fear of crime. British Journal of Criminology 33(1): 33–56. https://www.jstor.org/stable/23637740

69.

Worsley

McIntyre

Corcoran

(2019) Cyberbullying victimisation and mental distress: testing the moderating role of attachment security, social support, and coping styles. Emotional & Behavioural Difficulties 24(1): 20–35. DOI: 10.1080/13632752.2018.1530497.

70.

(2019) The impact of learning self-efficacy on social supports towards learned helplessness in China. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education 15(10): em1825. DOI: 10.29333/ejmste/115457.

71.

Xie

Zhou

, et al. (2023) Mediating role of learned helplessness’ components in the association between health literacy/social support and self-management among maintenance haemodialysis patients in Changsha, China: a cross-sectional study. BMJ Open 13(8): e068601. https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmjopen-2022-068601

72.

Yap

MBH

Devilly

(2004) The role of perceived social support in crime victimisation. Clinical Psychology Review 24(1): 1–14. DOI: 10.1016/j.cpr.2003.09.007.

73.

Yin

(1982) Fear of crime as a problem for the elderly. Social Problems 30(2): 240–245. DOI: 10.2307/800521.

74.

Yuan

McNeeley

Melde

(2024) Understanding the fear of crime and perceived risk across immigrant generations: does the quality of social ties matter? Crime & Delinquency 70(3): 812–843. DOI: 10.1177/00111287221113306.

Understanding learned helplessness: The role of fear of crime and social support

Abstract

Keywords

Introduction

Learned helplessness

Fear of crime

Perceived interpersonal social support

The present study

Methods

Participants

Materials

Fear of crime

Learned helplessness

Perceived interpersonal social support (Perceived ISS)

Control variables

Procedure

Analysis and results

Hypotheses testing: moderated regression

Discussion

Summary of findings

Theoretical and practical implications

Fear of crime and learned helplessness

Perceived ISS and learned helplessness

The moderating effect of Perceived ISS

Limitations and future directions

Conclusions

Footnotes

Author contributions

Declaration of conflicting interests

Funding

Ethics statement

ORCID iDs

Data Availability Statement

References