This article unravels the classification of individuals which operated through the dualism between two execution methods, strangulation and decapitation, during the Qing dynasty. The fundamental difference lay in whether the method of execution preserved the integrity of the corpse. As this factor entailed important moral and metaphysical consequences, there is an uncrossable boundary between the two situations. The confidentiality surrounding the sentence to be carried out was an effort to maintain this boundary, and crossing it, as happened in some cases examined by this paper, was considered a serious breach of justice. Did such a classification mechanism imply a hierarchical relationship between strangulation and decapitation as punishments? The article goes on to address this question, showing that an affirmative answer is as well supported by historical sources as a negative one, and it attempts to reconcile this apparent contradiction.
BannerS. (2002). The death penalty. An American history. Harvard University Press.
2.
BoddeD.MorrisC. (1967). Law in imperial China: Exemplified by 190 Ch’ing (Qing) dynasty cases. Harvard University Press.
3.
BourgonJ. (2007). Principe de légalité et règle de droit dans la tradition juridique chinoise. In Delmas-MartyM.Pierre-ÉtienneW. (Ed.), La Chine et la démocratie (pp. 157–174). Fayard.
4.
BourgonJ.ErismannJ. (2014). Figures of deterrence in late imperial China. Frequency, spatial repartition, and types of crimes targeted by dismemberment under the Qing dynasty. Crime, History & Societies, 18(2), 49–84. https://doi.org/10.4000/chs.1487
5.
BrookT.BourgonJ.BlueG. (2008). Death by a Thousand Cuts.Harvard University Press.
6.
BuoyeT. (2014). Bare sticks and naked pity: Rhetoric and representation in Qing dynasty (1644–1911) capital case records. Crime, History & Societies, 18(2), 27–47. https://doi.org/10.4000/chs.1485
7.
Bureau of Jiangsu Financial Commissioner (Jiangsu Buzheng Shisi). (1764). Imperial edicts and precedents, imperially promulgated (Qingban shangyu tiaoli). In Rare books. Fu ssu-nien library (925.27 011 v.121). Academia Sinica.
JiangY. X. (1825, January 20). [Palace memorial]. Grand council copies of palace memorials (3-3726-10). First Historical Archives of China.
10.
Jilun (1811, January 1). [Palace memorial]. Grand council copies of palace memorials (3-2217-28). First Historical Archives of China.
11.
Kungang (1997). Imperially endorsed compendium of statutes, sub-statutes and precedents of the great Qing (Qingding da Qing Huidian Shili). Shanghai Classics Publishing House. (Original work published 1899).
12.
Lebao (1808, November 19). [Palace memorial]. Archives of palace memorials (097896). National Palace Museum.
13.
LiX. R. (2011). Changes and debates on the method of capital punishment in the late Qing dynasty [In Chinese]. Journal of Sun Yat-Sen University (Social Science Edition), 230(51), 79–88.
MinD. F. (2013). An analysis of the increase and decrease in the death penalty articles and the death penalties in Qing code [In Chinese]. (Qing lü zhong de sizui lümu ji gelei sizui shuliang xiaozhang shuxi). Fazhishi yanjiu [Journal for Legal History Studies], 23(June), 257–289.
16.
MühlhahnK. (2009). Criminal justice in China. A history. Harvard University Press.
17.
OkadaA. (2002). On the properness of having only one kind of death penalty [in Chinese] (sixing yi zhi yizhong lun). In LiuY. Z.SunX. M. (Eds.), Riben zhengfa kaocha ji (records of the surveys on the Japanese political and legal systems) (pp. 193–195). Shanghai Classics Publishing House. (Original work published 1907).
RipsteinA. (2009). Force and freedom: Kant’s legal and political philosophy. Harvard University Press.
20.
ShenJ. B. (2010a). Theory of one single degree within the death penalty [in Chinese] (sixing weiyi shuo). In XuS. H. (Ed.), Shen jiaben quanji (complete works of shen jiaben) (Vol. 4, pp. 661–672). China University of Political Science and Law Press. (Original work written ca. 1908).
21.
ShenJ. B. (2010b). Memorial respectfully outlining the revisions of the code [In Chinese] (jingchen xiuding dazhi zhe). In XuS. H. (Ed.), Shen jiaben quanji (Vol. 2, pp. 451–455). China University of Political Science and Law Press. (Original work written 1908).
22.
ShenZ. Q. (2000). Collected commentaries on the great Qing code (da Qing lü jizhu). In HuaiX. F.LiJ. (Eds.). Law Press. (Original work published 1715).
23.
The great Qing code (JonesW. C., Trans.). (1994). Oxford University Press.
24.
The Hsiao Ching (MakraM. L., Trans.). (1961). St. John’s University Press.
25.
Veritable records of the Qing dynasty (Qing shilu). (1986). Zhonghua Book Company. Retrieved August 15, 2024. Jiaqing reign (1796–1820, Original work published 1824). Guangxu reign (1874/75–1908, Original work published 1921). https://hanchi.ihp.sinica.edu.tw/
26.
WangM. D. (2001). A belt bodkin worn to untangle the code (dulü peixi). In HuaiX. F.HeQ. H. (Eds.). Law Press. (Original work published 1674).
27.
XiongM. L.LiuR. (2022). Death sentences in the great Qing, 1744–1840: Critical note on civilization in comparison with England and Wales. University of Miami International and Comparative Law Review, 30(1), 47–109. https://repository.law.miami.edu/umiclr/vol30/iss1/4
28.
XueY. S. (1970). Lingering doubts after reading the sub-statutes (duli cunyi). In HuangJ. J. (Ed.), Chinese Materials and Research Aids Service Center. (original work published 1900).
29.
Yisang’a (Eds.). (1690). Compendium of statutes of the great Qing (da Qing huidian). https://hanchi.ihp.sinica.edu.tw/Retrieved August 15, 2024.
30.
ZhangN. (2008). Corps et peine capitale dans la Chine impériale. Les dimensions judiciaires et rituelles sous les Ming. T’oung Pao, 94(4), 246–305. https://doi.org/10.1163/008254308x385897
31.
ZhangN. (2014). Transformations in the death penalty system from the late Qing to the Republican era: Practices of death penalty between general criminal law and special criminal law [In Chinese]. (Qing mou minguo sixing zhidu bianqian: putong xingfa yu tebie xingshi fa zhijian de sixing shijian). In Institute for Chinese Ancient Legal Documents, China University of Political Science and Law. In Qing dai minguo sifa dang’an yu Beijing diqu fazhi (judicial Archives from the Qing dynasty to the republican era and the legal system in the Beijing area) (pp. 42–118). China University of Political Science and Law Press.
32.
ZhangS. C. (1826, January 15). [Palace memorial]. Grand council copies of palace memorials (3-3733-19). First Historical Archives of China.
33.
ZhangT. Y. (Eds.). (1764). Compendium of statutes, regulations, and sub-statutes of the great qing. (da Qing huidian zeli). https://hanchi.ihp.sinica.edu.tw/Retrieved April 25, 2024.
ZhuQ. Q. (1888). A conspectus of judicial cases (Xing’an huilan). https://hanchi.ihp.sinica.edu.tw/Retrieved April 25, 2024. (Original work published 1840).
