This article analyses the conflicts between Catholic churches and Interstate Highway routing during the civil rights era, looking at three Catholic institutions in Birmingham, Alabama, that were adjacent to planned Interstate Highways. The article concludes that Alabama Highway officials did not significantly change Interstate Highway plans because of concerns about the impacts on Catholic institutions, which many Catholics viewed as religiously and racially biased. Catholic institutions that served African American or White children were unable to affect significant changes to politically and racially motivated Interstate Highway routing because those changes would have been to the detriment of middle-class White neighbourhoods.
ADAH, Public Information Subject Files – Catholic – Barnabas, Container SG 6872, Folder 37, “Ground Breaking for New St. Barnabas Church”, The Catholic Week 5 January 1952.
2.
ADAH, Public Information Subject Files – Catholic – Barnabas, Container SG 6872, Folder 37, “Pews Built by Workers in Parish”, The Catholic Week 10 January 1953.
3.
ADAH, Public Information Subject Files – Catholic – Barnabas, Container SG 6872, Folder 37, “St. Barnabas Church to Open Christmas”, The Catholic Week 20 December 1952.
4.
ADAH, Public Information Subject Files – Ensley, Container SG6868, Container 81 Lane Carter, “Faiths, Races Meet, Dedicate New Holy Family Hospital”, Birmingham News 11 January1954.
5.
ADAH, Public Information Subject Files – Ensley, Container SG6868, Container 81, “First P-TA at St. Joseph’s Works Hard for Their Brand New School”, The Catholic Week 2 January 1959.
6.
ADAH, Public Information Subject Files – Ensley, Container SG6868, Container 81, “Portion of Project Area to be Named ‘Tuxedo Gardens’”, The Birmingham News 4 October 1956.
7.
ADAH, Public Information Subject Files – Ensley, Container SG6868, Container 81, “Work on New Hospital May Begin Soon”, Birmingham News 29 February 1952.
8.
ADAH, Public Information Subject Files – Ensley, Container SG6868, Folder 30, “Catholics to Break Ground for Church”, Birmingham News 11 July 1964.
9.
ADAH, Public Information Subject Files, Holy Family, Container SG6869, File 30, “Catholic Negro Hospital Nears Realization”, Jefferson County Catholic 1 March 1952.
10.
ADAH, Public Information Subject Files, Holy Family, Container SG6869, File 30, “Ground Broken for Hospital That Will Mend”, Birmingham News 24 September 1952.
11.
ADAH, Public Information Subject Files, Holy Family, Container SG6869, File 30, “First Negro Hospital”, Birmingham News 23 September 1952.
12.
ADAH, Public Information Subject Files – Holy Family SG6869, “Catholic Hospital for Negroes to be Dedicated Sunday; Non-Catholics Help Raise Funds”, The Catholic Week 9 January1954.
13.
ADAH, Public Information Subject Files – Holy Family SG6869, Container 30, “Holy Family School will be Dedicated”, Birmingham News 12 December 1956.
14.
ADAH, Public Information Subject Files – Holy Family SG6869, Container 30, Lorine Alexander, “Sisters of Charity Will Soon See Their Prayers Answered”, Birmingham Newsn.d.
15.
ADAH, Public Information Subject Files – Holy Family SG6869, Folder 30, “Dedication of St. Barnabas Church, Sunday”, The Catholic Week 9 January 1954.
16.
ADAH, Public Information Subject Files – Jefferson County – Catholic – St. Joseph’s, Container SG 6872, Folder 46, “Archbishop Breaks Ground for St. Joseph School, Ensley”, The Catholic Week 7 February 1958.
17.
ADAH, Public Information Subject Files – Jefferson County – Catholic – St. Joseph’s, Container SG 6872, Folder 46, “Archbishop Dedicates St. Joseph’s School, Convent, Sunday at 3”, The Catholic Week 2 January 1959.
18.
ADAH, Public Information Subject Files – Jefferson County – Ensley, Container SG6868, Folder 82, “Ensley Schools to Open $1 Million Job”, Birmingham News 29 August 1958.
19.
ADAH, Public Information Subject Files – Jefferson County – Holy Family, Container SG 6869, Folder 30, “Ground Broken in Ensley for Negro School”, Birmingham News 21 October1955.
20.
Archdiocese of Mobile Archives, Letter from Rev. T.J. Toolen to Priests, 22 April1964.
21.
BPL, Albert Boutwell files, 20.28, Letter from Frank Wagner to Parks and Recreation Board Members, 6 May 1965.
22.
BPL, Albert Boutwell files, 20.28, Letter from John Tortorici to Mayor Albert Boutwell, 13 May 1965.
23.
BPL, Albert Boutwell files, 20.28, Letter from Tony Cantavespre to Mayor Albert Boutwell, 31 August 1964.
24.
BPL, Albert Boutwell files, 20.28, Letter from Tony P. Cantavespre to Mayor Boutwell, 19 February 1964.
25.
BPL, J.W Morgan Papers, Overpass and Underpass, Concerning the Construction of Viaducts in the Birmingham Area, 30.23, “Bureau Approves Ensley Overpass”, Birmingham News 27 June 1951.
26.
BPL, J.W Morgan Papers, Overpass and Underpass, Concerning the Construction of Viaducts in the Birmingham Area, 30.23, “Bureau of Roads Engineers Scan N. Birmingham Sites”, Birmingham News 19 February 1954.
27.
BPL, J.W Morgan Papers, Overpass and Underpass, Concerning the Construction of Viaducts in the Birmingham Area, 30.24, Letter from Alton McWhorter to Edward Baxter, 30 May 1958.
28.
BPL, J.W Morgan Papers, Overpass and Underpass, Concerning the Construction of Viaducts in the Birmingham Area, 30.23, Letter from J.W. Morgan to U.S. Housing and Home Finance Agency, 17 March 1955.
29.
BPL, J.W Morgan Papers, Overpass and Underpass, Concerning the Construction of Viaducts in the Birmingham Area, 30.23, “Project to be Studied for N. Birmingham”, Birmingham News 13 February 1954.
30.
BPL, J.W. Morgan Papers, Slum Clearance, Medical Center, 25.20, Eleecta D. Green, DDS, “Medical Center – Separate But Equal”, Birmingham Post-Herald 1 December 1953.
31.
BPL, J.W Morgan Papers, Slum Clearance – Medical Center, 25.20, Letter from Clarence Hanson, Jr to Oveta Culp Hobby, 22 September 1953.
32.
NAA, RG 30, NRC 69B0176, 3 IH-15-Route 59, April 6, 1958, Letter from Paul F. Royster to John McCormack, 1 March 1961.
33.
NAA, RG 30, NRC 69B0176, Box 2, 3 IH-15-Route 59, April 6, 1958, Letter from Paul Royster to Lister Hill, 23 January 1959.
34.
NAA, RG 30, NRC 69B0176, Box 2, IH-15-Route 20, Letter from B.A. Scott to Sam Engelhardt, 28 March 1961.
35.
NAA, RG 30, NRC 69B0176, IH-15-Route 20, Letter from B.A. Scott to Rex Anderson, 15 August 1960.
36.
NAA, RG 30, NRC 69B0176, IH-15-Route 20, Letter from B.A. Scott to Rex Anderson, 15 November 1960.
37.
NA2, Classified Central File, 1960–65 Segment, RG 30, PI 134/E.6F, 530, 29, 8, 1-, Box 1664–1665, Letter from F.C. Turner to Lister Hill, 15 April 1960.
38.
NA2, Classified Central File, 1960–65 Segment, RG 30, PI 134/E.6F, 530, 29, Box 1665, Letter from C.B. Hudson to Director of the Bureau of Public Roads, 4 April 1960.
39.
NA2, Classified Central File, 1960–65 Segment, RG 30, PI 134/E.6F, 530, 29, Box 1665, Letter from Lister Hill to Bertram Tallamy, 7 April 1960.
40.
NA2, DOT FWA Central Correspondence, 1968–1969, RG 406, A1-1-A, 530, 33, 4, 5–6, Box 134, Letter from R.B. Gillette to Harry E. Stark, 30 August 1968.
41.
NA2, FWA Correspondence Relating to Federal Aid Primary and Secondary System Projects, 1961–1978, RG 206, A 1-3, 530, 33, 19, 5, Box 2, Commission of the City of Birmingham Resolution, 29 January 1963.
42.
NA2, FWA Correspondence Relating to Federal Aid Primary and Secondary System Projects, 1961–1978, RG 206, A 1-3, 530, 33, 19, 5, Box 2, Letter from Alton McWhorter to Ed Rodgers, 29 January 1963.
43.
NA2, FWA Correspondence Relating to Federal Aid Primary and Secondary System Projects, 1961–1978, RG 206, A 1-3, 530, 33, 19, 5, Box 2, Letter from D. Grant Michle to John Sparkman, 8 February 1963.
44.
NA2, FWA Correspondence Relating to Federal Aid Primary and Secondary System Projects, 1961–1978, RG 206, A 1-3, 530, 33, 19, 5, Box 2, Letter from E.D. Jordan to George Huddleton, 24 October 1962.
45.
NA2, FWA Correspondence Relating to Federal Aid Primary and Secondary System Projects, 1961–1978, RG 206, A 1-3, 530, 33, 19, 5, Box 3, Letter from G.N. Williams to R.S. Anderson, 19 July 1962.
46.
NA2, FWA Correspondence Relating to Federal Aid Primary and Secondary System Projects, 1961–1978, RG 206, A 1-3, 530, 33, 19, 5, Box 2, Lou Isaacson, “Commission Protests Relocating Thruway”, Birmingham News, 29 January 1963.
47.
NA2, FWA Correspondence Relating to Federal Aid Primary and Secondary System Projects, 1961–1978, RG 206, A 1-3, 530, 33, 19, 5, Box 3, Letter from Rex Whitton to Reverend Ronald Norris, 28 September 1962.
48.
NA2, FWA Correspondence Relating to Federal Aid Primary and Secondary System Projects, 1961–1978, RG 206, A 1-3, Stack 530, Row 33, Compartment 19, Shelf 5, Box 3, Rex Whitton to Senator Keating, 1 October 1962.
49.
NA2, FWA Correspondence Relating to Federal Aid Primary and Secondary System Projects, 1961–1978, RG 406, A 1-3, 530, 33, 19, 5, Box 2, Letter from Byron Heitzman to President John F. Kennedy, 13 November 1962.
50.
NA2, FWA Correspondence Relating to Federal Aid Primary and Secondary System Projects, 1961–1978, RG 406, A 1-3, 530, 33, 19, 5, Box 2, Letter from Carl Hooffstetter to President John F. Kennedy, 26 October 1962.
51.
NA2, FWA Correspondence Relating to Federal Aid Primary and Secondary System Projects, 1961–1978, RG 406, A 1-3, 530, 33, 19, 5, Box 2, Letter from G.M. Williams to R.S. Anderson, 30 November 1962.
52.
NA2, FWA Correspondence Relating to Federal Aid Primary and Secondary System Projects, 1961–1978, RG 406, A 1-3, 530, 33, 19, 5, Box 2, “Passionist Fathers Missions: Urban Renewal, Road, and the Hospital”, Newsletter from Passionist Fathers Missions, September 1962.
53.
NA2, FWA Correspondence Relating to Federal Aid Primary and Secondary System Projects, 1961–1978, RG 406, A 1-3, 530, 33, 19, 5, Box 3, Letter from D. Grant Michle to Representative Daniel J. Flood, 26 October 1962.
54.
NA2, FWA Correspondence Relating to Federal Aid Primary and Secondary System Projects, 1961–1978, RG 406, A 1-3, 530, 33, 19, 5, Box 3, Letter from D. Grant Michle to Reverend Ludger Martin, 8 November 1962.
55.
NA2, FWA Correspondence Relating to Federal Aid Primary and Secondary System Projects, 1961–1978, RG 406, A 1-3, 530, 33, 19, 5, Box 2, Letter from Father Ludger Martin to Carl Hooffstetter, 19 October 1962.
56.
NA2, FWA Correspondence Relating to Federal Aid Primary and Secondary System Projects, 1961–1978, RG 406, A 1-3, 530, 33, 19, 5, Box 3, Letter from Father Luger Martin to Rex Whitton, 12 October 1961.
57.
NA2, FWA Correspondence Relating to Federal Aid Primary and Secondary System Projects, 1961–1978, RG 406, A 1-3, 530, 33, 19, 5, Box 2, Letter from Helen Sullivan to Rex Whitton, 1 February 1963.
58.
NA2, FWA Correspondence Relating to Federal Aid Primary and Secondary System Projects, 1961–1978, RG 206, A 1-3, 530, 33, 19, 5, Box 3, Letter from Josiah Henry Rank to Senator Keating, 1 September 1962.
59.
NA2, FWA Correspondence Relating to Federal Aid Primary and Secondary System Projects, 1961–1978, RG 406, A 1-3, 530, 33, 19, 5, Box 3, Letter from Lawrence E. Strangier to President John F. Kennedy, 26 September 1962.
60.
NA2, FWA Correspondence Relating to Federal Aid Primary and Secondary System Projects, 1961–1978, RG 406, A 1-3, 530, 33, 19, 5, Box 3, Letter from Mary Slimak to unknown recipient (Dear Sir), 26 September 1962.
61.
NA2, FWA Correspondence Relating to Federal Aid Primary and Secondary System Projects, 1961–1978, RG 406, A 1-3, 530, 33, 19, 5, Box 2, Letter from Rex Whitten to Byron Heitzman, 23 November 1962.
62.
NA2, FWA Correspondence Relating to Federal Aid Primary and Secondary System Projects, 1961–1978, RG 406, A 1-3, 530, 33, 19, 5, Box 3, Letter from Rex Whitton to Carl Hoopffstetter, 2 September 1962.
63.
NA2, FWA Correspondence Relating to Federal Aid Primary and Secondary System Projects, 1961–1978, RG 406, A 1-3, 530, 33, 19, 5, Box 2, Letter from Rex Whitton to Carl Hooffstetter, 23 November 1962.
64.
NA2, FWA Correspondence Relating to Federal Aid Primary and Secondary System Projects, 1961–1978, RG 406, A 1-3, 530, 33, 19, 5, Box 3, Letter from Rex Whitton to Mary Slimak, 5 October 1962.
65.
NA2, FWA Correspondence Relating to Federal Aid Primary and Secondary System Projects, 1961–1978, RG 406, A 1-3, 530, 33, 19, 5, Box 3, Letter from Rex Whitton to Rose Sailers, 5 October 1962.
66.
NA2, FWA Correspondence Relating to Federal Aid Primary and Secondary System Projects, 1961–1978, RG 206, A 1-3, 530, 33, 19, 5, Box 3, Letter from Rex Whitton to Senator Keating, 1 October 1962.
67.
NA2, FWA Correspondence Relating to Federal Aid Primary and Secondary System Projects, 1961–1978, RG 406, A 1-3, 530, 33, 19, 5, Box 3, Letter from Richard Eichner to Senator Clifford Case, 17 September 1962.
68.
NA2, FWA Correspondence Relating to Federal Aid Primary and Secondary System Projects, 1961–1978, RG 406, A 1-3, 530, 33, 19, 5, Box 3, Letter from Rose M Sailers to President John F. Kennedy, 23 September 1962.
69.
NA2, Model Cities Reports, RG 207, Au/c.97, 130, 3, 14, 3, Box 2–4, City of Birmingham, Alabama, Model Cities Application for Planning Grant, 12 April 1968.
70.
NA2, RG 206, A 1-3, 530, 33, 19, 5, Box 3, FWA Correspondence Relating to Federal Aid Primary and Secondary System Projects, 1961–1978, Letter from Mrs George W. Evans to Mr Flood, 3 October 1960.
71.
NA2, RG 406, A 1-3, 530, 33, 19, 5, Box 2, FWA Correspondence Relating to Federal Aid Primary and Secondary System Projects, 1961–1978 Letter from Helen Sullivan to Rex Whitton, 1 February 1963.
72.
NA2, 7/1968-1/1968, RG 406, A1-33, 530, 33, 41, Box 12, Letter from Harry Stark to E.H. Swick, DOT FWA Motor Carrier Files of Admin Francis C. Turner, 23 January 1963.
73.
Armstrong v. Board of Education of City of Birmingham, 220 F. Supp 217 (n.d. Alabama, 1963).
74.
Armstrong v. Board of Education of City of Birmingham, 333 F. 2d 47 (U.S. Ct. of Appeals, 5th Dist, 1964).
75.
Eric Avila,
“L.A.’s Invisible Freeway Revolt: The Cultural Politics of Fighting Freeways”, Journal of Urban History40:5 (2014), 831–42.
76.
Eric Avila, The Folklore of the Freeway: Race and Revolt in the Modernist City (
Minneapolis MN:
University of Minnesota Press, 2014).
77.
Joseph Bagley, The Politics of White Rights (
Athens GA:
The University of Georgia Press, 2018).
78.
Richard Baumbach and William Borah, The Second Battle of New Orleans: A History of the Vieux Carre Riverfront Expressway Controversy (
Tuscaloosa AL:
University of Alabama Press, 1981).
79.
Ronald Bayor, Race and the Shaping of Twentieth-Century Atlanta (
Chapel Hill NC:
The University of North Carolina Press, 1996).
80.
Mark Benton,
“‘Just the Way Things Are Around Here’: Racial Segregation, Critical Junctures, and Path Dependence in Saint Louis”, Journal of Urban History44:6 (2018), 1113–30.
81.
Roger Biles,
“Expressways Before the Interstates: The Case of Detroit, 1945–1956”, Journal of Urban History40:5 (2014), 843–54.
82.
William Borah, The Second Battle of New Orleans: A History of the Vieux Carre Riverfront Expressway Controversy (
Tuscaloosa AL:
University of Alabama Press, 1981).
83.
Cory Callahan and Janie Hubbard,
“Protest and Prayer: The Jewish and Catholic Presence at Selma”, Social Studies Research and Practice14:2 (2019), 238–54.
84.
Joshua Cannon,
“Huntsville, the Highway, and Urban Redevelopment: The Long Road to Connect Downtown Huntsville, Alabama to the Interstate Highway System”, Journal of Planning History11:1 (2012), 27–46.
85.
Sister Nary Ruth Coffman, Build Me A City (
Montgomery AL:
Pioneer Press, 1984).
86.
Charles Connerly,
“From Racial Zoning to Community Empowerment: The Interstate Highway System and the African American Community in Birmingham, Alabama”, Journal of Planning Education and Research22:2 (2002), 99–114.
87.
Charles Connerly, The Most Segregated City in America: City Planning and Civil Rights in Birmingham, 1920–1980 (
Charlottesville VA:
University of Virginia Press, 2005).
88.
Sharlene Sinegal Deuir,
“Nothing Is to be Feared: Norman C. Francis, Civil Rights Activism, and the Black Catholic Movement”, The Journal of African American History101:2 (2016), 312–34.
89.
Davison M. Douglas, Reading, Writing, and Race (
Chapel Hill NC:
The University of North Carolina Press, 1995).
90.
Lynn Dumenil,
“The Tribal Twenties: ‘Assimilated’ Catholics’ Response to Anti-Catholicism in the 1920s”, Journal of Ethnic History11:1 (1991), 21–50.
91.
Glenn Feldman, Politics, Society, and the Klan in Alabama, 1915–1949 (
Tuscaloosa AL:
University of Alabama Press, 1999).
92.
James Findlay,
“Religion and Politics in the Sixties: The Churches and the Civil Rights Act of 1964”, Journal of American History77:1 (1990), 66–92.
93.
Harland Bartholomew and Associates,A Report on Schools and Parks: A Part of the Comprehensive Plan, Birmingham, Alabama (
Birmingham AL:
Birmingham Planning Board, 1961).
94.
Harland Bartholomew and Associates, Land Use: A Part of the Comprehensive Plan of Birmingham, Alabama (
Birmingham AL:
Birmingham Planning Commission, 1959).
95.
Jane Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great American Cities (
New York NY:
Random House, 1961).
96.
Gregory S. Jacobs, Getting Around Brown (
Columbus OH:
Ohio State University Press, 1998).
97.
Karen Johnson,
“Beyond Parish Boundaries: Black Catholics and the Quest for Racial Justice”, Religion and American Culture25:2 (2015), 264–300.
98.
David Karas,
“Highway to Inequity: The Disparate Impact of the Interstate Highway System on Poor and Minority Communities in American Cities”,New Visions for Public Affairs7 (2015), 9–21.
99.
Martin Luther King Jr. “Letter from Birmingham Jail” Open letter to Fellow Clergymen, 16 April 1963.
100.
Christopher Paul Lehman,
“Civil Rights in Twilight: The End of the Civil Rights Era in 1973”, Journal of Black Studies36:3 (2006), 415–28.
101.
Father Joseph Lody (ed.), History of the Diocese of Birmingham (
Strasbourg:
Editions du Signe, 2009).
102.
John McGreevy, Catholicism and American Freedom: A History (
New York NY:
W. W. Norton and Company, 2004).
103.
Zebulon Vance Miletsky,
“Before Bussing: Boston’s Long Movement for Civil Rights and the Legacy of Jim Crow in the ‘Cradle of Liberty’”, Journal of Urban History43:2 (2017), 204–17.
104.
Raymond Mohl,
“Citizen Activism and Freeway Revolts in Memphis and Nashville: The Road to Litigation”, Journal of Urban History40:5 (2014), 870–93.
105.
Raymond Mohl,
“Making the Second Ghetto in Metropolitan Miami, 1940–1960”, Journal of Urban History21:3 (1995), 395–427.
106.
Raymond Mohl,
“Stop the Road: Freeway Revolts in American Cities”, Journal of Urban History30:5 (2004), 674–706.
Andrew Moore, “Practicing What We Preach: White Catholics and the Civil Rights Movement in Atlanta”, Georgia Historical Quarterly89:3(2005), 334–67.
109.
Andrew S. Moore, The South’s Tolerable Alien: Roman Catholics in Alabama and Georgia, 1945–1970 (
Baton Rouge LA:
Louisiana State University Press, 2007).
110.
National Conference of Catholic Bishops and United States Catholic Conference, Pastoral Letters of the United States Catholic Bishops (Washington D.C.: United States Conference of Bishops, 1958).
111.
Tracy Neumann, Remaking the Rust Belt: The Postindustrial Transformation of North America (
Philadelphia PA:
University of Pennsylvania Press, 2016).
112.
Mark Newman, Desegregating Dixie: The Catholic Church in the South and Integration, 1945–1992 (
Jackson MS:
University Press of Mississippi, 2018).
113.
Mark Newman,
“Desegregation in the Catholic Diocese of Richmond, 1945–1973”,Virginia Magazine of History and Biography117:4 (2009), 356–71.
114.
Rebecca Retzlaff,
“Interstate Highways and the Civil Rights Movement: The Case of I-85 and the Oak Park Neighborhood in Montgomery, Alabama”, Journal of Urban Affairs41:7 (2019), 930–59.
115.
Rebecca Retzlaff, “Connecting Public School Segregation with Urban Renewal and Interstate Highway Planning: The Case of Birmingham, Alabama”, Journal of Planning History (2020), https://doi.org/10.1177/1538513220906386
116.
Mark Paul Richard, “
‘This is Not a Catholic Nation’: The Ku Klux Klan Confronts Franco-Americans in Maine”, The New England Quarterly82:2 (2009), 285–303.
117.
Mark Rose and Raymond Mohl, Interstate: Highway Politics and Policy Since 1939, 3rd ed (
Knoxville TN:
University of Tennessee Press, 2012).
118.
Matthew Roth,
“Whittier Boulevard, Sixth Street Bridge, and the Origins of Transportation Exploitation in East Los Angeles”, Journal of Urban History30:5 (2004), 729–48.
119.
Richard Rothstein, The Color of Law: A Forgotten History of How Our Government Segregated America (
New York NY:
Liveright Publishing Company, 2017).
120.
Zachary Schrag,
“The Freeway Fight in Washington D.C.: The Three Sisters Bridge in Three Administrations”, Journal of Urban History30:5 (2004), 648–73.
121.
Gary Schwartz,
“Urban Freeways and the Interstate System”, Transportation Law Journal8 (1976), 167–264.
122.
Christopher MacGregor Scribner, Renewing Birmingham (
Athens GA:
The University of Georgia Press, 2002).
123.
Shuttlesworth v. Birmingham Board of Education, 162 F. Supp. 372 (n.d. Alabama, 1958).
124.
Shuttlesworth v. Board of Education, 358 U.S. 101 (1958).
125.
Genevieve Siegel-Hawley,“City Lines, County Lines, Color Lines: The Relationship Between School and Housing Segregation in Four Southern Metro Areas”, Teachers College Record115:060307 (2013), 1–45.
126.
Christopher Silver, Twentieth-Century Richmond: Planning, Politics, and Race (
Knoxville TN:
University of Tennessee Press, 1984).
127.
David Southern, John LaFarge and the Limits of Catholic Interracialism, 1911–1963 (
Baton Rouge LA:
Louisiana State University Press, 1996).
128.
Leland White,
“Dividing Highway: Citizen Activism and Interstate 66 in Arlington, Virginia”,Washington History13:1 (2001), 52–67.
129.
Bobby Wilson, America’s Johannesburg: Industrialization and Racial Transformation in Birmingham (
New York NY:
Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 2000).
130.
Bobby Wilson, Race and Place in Birmingham: The Civil Rights and Neighborhood Movements (
New York NY:
Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 2000).
