The current emphasis on preparing students with mental handicaps to operate in community settings requires practitioners to implement educational methods that will foster community skill acquisition and generalization. Skill generalization calls for the implementation of methods that are potentially more complex than those required for simple skill acquisition. The present paper focuses on the success of generalization within community training studies and the strategies used to achieve this success. The present review analyzed 27 studies that taught community skills to persons with moderate to severe mental handicaps and tested the generalization of these skills. The analyses included the degree of generalization that occurred and the effect of different strategies used to promote generalization. The paper concludes with a discussion of implications for practitioners and the need for additional research.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Aeschleman, S.R., & Schladenhauffen, J. (1984). Acquisition, generalization, and maintenance of grocery shopping skills by severely mentally retarded adolescents. Applied Research in Mental Retardation, 5, 245–258.
2.
Aveno, A., Renzaglia, A., & Lively, C. (1987). Surveying community training sites to insure that instructional decisions accommodate the site as well as the trainees. Education and Training in Mental Retardation, 22, 167–175.
3.
Baumgart, D., & VanWalleghem, J. (1986). Staffing strategies for implementing community-based instruction. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 11, 92–102.
4.
Bourbeau, P.E., Sowers, J.A., & Close, D.W. (1986). An experimental analysis of generalization of banking skills from classroom to bank settings in the community. Education and Training of the Mentally Retarded, 21(2), 98–107.
5.
Brown, L., Nisbet, J., Ford, A., Sweet, M., Shiraga, B., & York, J. (1983). The critical need for non-school instruction in programs for severely handicapped students. Journal of the Association for the Severely Handicapped, 8, 71–77.
6.
Coon, M.E., Vogelsberg, R.T., & Williams, W. (1981). Effects of classroom public transportation instruction on generalization to the natural environment. Journal of the Association for the Severely Handicapped, 6, 46–53.
7.
Falvey, M.A. (1986). Community-based curriculum: Instructional strategies for students with severe handicaps. Baltimore: Brookes.
8.
Haring, N. (Ed.). (1987). Investigating the problem of skill generalization: Literature review III. Seattle: University of Washington, Washington Research Organization.
9.
Haring, N. (Ed.). (1988). Generalization for students with severe handicaps: Strategies and solutions. Seattle: University of Washington Press.
10.
Haring, N., Liberty, K., Billingsley, F., White, O., Lynch, V., Kayser, J., & McCarty, F. (1985). Investigating the problem of skill generalization (3rd ed.). Seattle: University of Washington, Washington Research Organization.
11.
Haring, T., Kennedy, C., Adams, M., & Pitts-Conway, V. (1987). Teaching generalization of purchasing skills across community settings to autistic youth using video tape modeling. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 20, 89–96.
12.
Hill, J.W., Wehman, P., & Horst, G. (1982). Toward generalization of appropriate leisure and social behavior in severely handicapped youth: Pinball machine use. Journal of the Association for the Severely Handicapped, 6, 38–44.
13.
Horner, R.H., Albin, R.W., & Ralph, G. (1986). Generalization with precision: The role of negative teaching examples in the instruction of generalized grocery item selection. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 11, 300–308.
14.
Horner, R.H., Dunlap, G., & Koegel, R.L. (Ed.). (1988). Generalization and maintenance: Life-style changes in applied settings. Baltimore: Brookes.
15.
Horner, R.H., Jones, D.N., & Williams, J.A. (1985). A functional approach to teaching generalized street crossing. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 10, 71–78.
16.
Horner, R.H., McDonnell, J.J., & Bellamy, G.T. (1986). Teaching generalized skills: General case instruction in simulation and community settings. In R.H. Horner, L.H. Meyer, & H.D.B. Fredericks (Eds.), Education of learners with severe handicaps: Exemplary service strategies (pp. 289–314). Baltimore: Brookes.
17.
Horner, R.H., Sprague, J., & Wilcox, B. (1982). General case programming for community activities. In B. Wilcox & T. Bellamy (Eds.), Design of high school programs for severely handicapped students (pp. 61–98). Baltimore: Brookes.
18.
Kayser, J.E., & Billingsley, F.F. (1987). Generalization: A review of assessment procedures. In N. Haring (Ed.), Investigating the problem of skill generalization: Literature review III. Seattle: University of Washington, Washington Research Organization.
19.
Liberty, K.A. (1987). Behaver-control of stimulus events to facilitate generalization. In N. Haring (Ed.), Investigating the problem of skill generalization: Literature review III. Seattle: University of Washington, Washington Research Organization.
20.
Marchetti, A.G., Cecil, C.E., Graves, J., & Marchetti, D.C. (1984). Public transportation instruction: Comparison of classroom instruction, community instruction, and facility-grounds instruction. Mental Retardation, 22, 128–136.
21.
Marchetti, A.G., McCartney, J.R., Drain, S., Hooper, M., & Dix, J. (1983). Pedestrian skills training for mentally retarded adults: Comparison of training in two settings. Mental Retardation, 21, 107–110.
22.
Marholin, D., O'Toole, K.M., Touchette, P.E., Berger, P.L., & Doyle, D.A. (1979). I'll have a Big Mac, large fries, large coke, and apple pie, … or teaching adaptive community skills. Behavior Therapy, 10, 249–259.
23.
Matson, J.L. (1981). Use of independence training to teach shopping skills to mildly mentally retarded adults. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 86, 178–183.
24.
Matson, J.L., & Long, S. (1986). Teaching computation/shopping skills to mentally retarded adults. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 91, 98–101.
25.
McDonnell, J.J., & Ferguson, B. (1988). A comparison of general case in vivo and general case simulation plus in vivo training. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 13, 116–124.
26.
McDonnell, J.J., Horner, R.H., & Williams, J.A. (1984). Comparison of three strategies for teaching generalized grocery purchasing to high school students with severe handicaps. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 9, 123–133.
27.
Neef, N.A., Iwata, B.A., & Page, T.J. (1978). Public transportation training: In-vivo versus classroom instruction. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 11, 331–344.
28.
Nietupski, J., Clancy, P., & Christiansen, C. (1984). Acquisition, maintenance, and generalization of vending machine purchasing skills by moderately handicapped students. Education and Training of the Mentally Retarded, 17(2), 91–96.
29.
Nietupski, J., Hamre-Nietupski, S., Clancy, P., & Veerhusen, K. (1986). Guidelines for making simulation an effective adjunct to in vivo community instruction. The Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 11, 12–18.
30.
Nietupski, J., Hamre-Nietupski, S., Houselog, M., Donder, D., & Anderson, R. (1988). Proactive administrative strategies for implementing community-based programs for students with moderate/severe handicaps. Education and Training in Mental Retardation, 23, 138–146.
31.
Nietupski, J., Welch, J., & Wacker, D. (1983). Acquisition, maintenance, and transfer of grocery item purchasing skills by moderately and severely handicapped students. Education and Training of the Mentally Retarded, 18, 279–286.
32.
Sarber, R.E., Halasz, M.M., Messmer, M.C., Bickett, A.D., & Lutzker, J.R. (1983). Teaching menu planning and grocery shopping skills to a mentally retarded mother. Mental Retardation, 21, 101–106.
33.
Schleien, S.J., Certo, N.J., & Muccino, A. (1984). Acquisition of leisure skills by a severely handicapped adolescent: A data based instructional program. Education and Training of the Mentally Retarded, 19, 297–305.
34.
Schleien, S.J., & Larson, A. (1986). Adult leisure education for the independent use of a community recreation center. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 11, 39–44.
35.
Sedlak, R.A., Doyle, M., & Schloss, P. (1982). Video games: A training and generalization demonstration with severely retarded adolescents. Education and Training of the Mentally Retarded, 17, 332–336.
36.
Shafer, M.S., Inge, K.J., & Hill, J. (1986). Acquisition, generalization, and maintenance of automated banking skills. Education and Training of the Mentally Retarded, 21, 265–272.
37.
Snell, M.E., & Browder, D.M. (1986). Community-referenced instruction: Research and issues. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 11, 1–11.
38.
Sprague, J.R., & Horner, R.H. (1984). The effects of single instance, multiple instance, and general case training on generalized vending machine use by moderately and severely handicapped students. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 17, 273–278.
39.
Stokes, T.F., & Baer, D.M. (1977). An implicit technology of generalization. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 10, 349–367.
40.
Storey, K., Bates, P., & Hanson, H.B. (1984). Acquisition and generalization of coffee purchase skills by adults with severe disabilities. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 9, 178–185.
41.
Van den Pol, R.A., Iwata, B.A., Ivancic, M.T., Page, T.J., Neef, N.A., & Whitley, P.F. (1981). Teaching the handicapped to eat in public places: Acquisition, generalization, and maintenance of restaurant skills. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 14, 61–69.
42.
Vogelsberg, R.T., & Rusch, F.R. (1979). Training severely handicapped students to cross partially controlled intersections. AAESPH Review, 4, 264–273.
43.
Welch, J., Nietupski, J., & Hamre-Nietupski, S. (1985). Teaching public transportation problem solving skills to young adults with moderate handicaps. Education and Training of the Mentally Retarded, 20, 287–295.
44.
Westling, D.L. (1989). Leadership for education of persons with mental handicaps. Educational Leadership, 46(6), 19–23.
45.
White, O.R., Leber, B.D., & Phifer, C.E. (1985). Training in the natural environment and skill generalization: It doesn't always come naturally. In Haring, N., Liberty, K., Billingsley, F., White, O., Lynch, V., Kayser, J., & McCarty, F. (Eds.), Investigating the problem of skill generalization (3rd ed., pp. 63–79). Seattle: University of Washington, Washington Research Organization.
46.
White, O.R., Liberty, K.A., Haring, N.G., Billingsley, F.F., Boer, M., Burrage, A., Connors, R., Farman, R., Fedorchak, G., Leber, B.D., Liberty-Laylin, S., Miller, S., Opalski, C., Phifer, C., & Sessums, I. (1988). Review and analysis of strategies for generalization. In N. Haring (Ed.), Generalization for students with severe handicaps: Strategies and solutions (pp. 15–51). Seattle: University of Washington Press.
