Three years of computer-stored reading frequencies and celerations yielded average learning pictures for the 94 books in 17 different reading curricula. The median test with both Fisher's exact and with chi-square probabilities determined the significance of differences between the distributions of the average learning produced by the books in each curricular series. The pupils ranged from 5 to 21 years of age and included almost all exceptionalities. Major conclusions are: (a) The different curricula are functionally identical: they produce the same learning. (b) The average learning of these exceptional children was the same as that of regular children (x 1.2 per week), (c) Children can learn faster when starting at a low correct frequency (5 per minute), and when starting at high error frequencies (5 to 10 per minute). Strategies for improving learning include: (a) Teachers and children should treat errors as something to be aware of and eliminate, rather than as something to stay away from. (b) Curricula should start with low correct frequencies and high error frequencies, making room for steeper learning of both.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
All, P.From get truckin' to jaws, students improve their learning picture. Unpublished master's thesis, University of Kansas, 1977.
2.
Bateman, B. (Ed.). Learning disorders (Vol. 4). Seattle: Special Child Publications, Inc., 1971.
3.
Behavior Bank. Handbook of precise behavior facts: Listings of the first twelve thousand published precise behavior management projects. Box 3222, Kansas City, Ks. 66103: Precision Media, 1971.
4.
Behavior Research Company. Celeration charts and frequency and celeration finder available from Behavior Research Company, Box 3351, Kansas City, Ks. 66103 (no date).
5.
Betts, E. A.Foundations of reading instruction. New York: American Book Company, 1946.
6.
Chall, J. S.Readability: An appraisal of research and application. Columbus, Ohio: Bureau of Educational Research, Ohio State University, 1958.
7.
Chall, J. S.Learning to read: The great debate. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967.
8.
Chall, J. S.Reading 1967–1977: A decade of change and promise. Bloomington, Ind.: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation, 1977.
9.
Cooper, J. L.The effect of adjustment of basal reading achievement. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Boston University, 1952.
10.
Courtis, S. A.Standard tests in English. Elementary School Teacher, 1914, 14, 374–92.
11.
Courtis, S. A.Standards in rates of reading. The fourteenth yearbook of the society for the study of education, Pt. II. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1915.
12.
Dale, E., & Tyler, R. W.A study of the factors influencing the difficulty of reading materials for adults of limited reading ability. Library Quarterly, 1934, 4, 384–412.
13.
Dolch, E. W.Individualized reading vs. group reading. In J. L. Frost (Ed.), Issues and innovations in the teaching of reading. Glenview, Ill.: Scott Foresman, 1967.
14.
Dolch, E. W.Vocabulary burden. Journal of Educational Research, 1928, 17, 170–183.
15.
Edwards, J. S.Precisely teaching children labeled learning disabled (Doctoral dissertation, University of Kansas, 1969). Dissertation Abstracts International, 1970, 30, 5162A. (University Microfilm No. 70–11,017)
Ferguson, G. A.Statistical analysis in psychology and education. San Francisco: McGraw-Hill, 1959.
18.
Gray, C. T.Deficiencies in reading ability: Their diagnosis and remedies. Chicago: D. C. Heath, 1922.
19.
Gray, W. S.Principles of method in teaching reading, as derived from the scientific investigation. The eighteenth yearbook of the national society for the study of education, Pt. II, Fourth report of the committee on economy of time in education. Bloomington, Ill.: Public School Publishing, 1919, 26–51.
20.
Gray, W. S.Studies of elementary school reading through standardized tests. Supplementary Educational Monographs (Vol. 1). Chicago: Department of Education, University of Chicago, 1917.
21.
Gray, W. S.Summary of investigations related to reading. Chicago: University of Chicago, 1925.
22.
Gray, W. S., & Leary, B. E.What makes books readable. Chicago: University of Chicago, 1935.
23.
Harris, Albert J.How to increase reading ability. New York: Longmans, Green, 1956.
24.
Haughton, E. C.Aims — growing and sharing. Let's try doing something else kind of thing: Behavior principles and the exceptional child. Arlington, Va.: Council for Exceptional Children, 1972.
25.
Haughton, E. C.Tool skills and standard performance aims. Paper presented at the Big Sky Precision Teaching Conference, Kalispell, Montana, July 1977. (Sponsored by the Great Falls Public School District, Great Falls, Montana.)
26.
Hegge, T. C., Kirk, S. A., & Kirk, W. D.Remedial reading drills. Ann Arbor: George Wahr, 1940.
27.
Heilman, A. W.Principles and practices of teaching reading. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill, 1961.
28.
Hnetish, H. A.Educational charts (1940–1975) and projections (1975–2000) of the Libian Arab Republic. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Kansas, 1976.
29.
Hyatt, A. V.The place of oral reading in the school program: Its history and development from 1880–1941. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1943.
30.
Johnson, N. J.Acceleration of inner-city elementary school pupils' reading performance (Doctoral dissertation, University of Kansas, 1971). Dissertation Abstracts International, 1971, 32, 6250A. (University Microfilms No. 71–27, 160)
31.
Karlin, R.Programs for disabled readers. In J. L. Frost (Ed.), Issues and innovations in the teaching of reading. Glenview, Ill.: Scott Foresman, 1967.
32.
Koenig, C. H.The behavior bank: A system for sharing precise information. Teaching Exceptional Children, 1971, 3, 157.
33.
Koenig, C. H. Celeration bank instructions. Box 3351, Kansas City, Ks. 66103: Behavior Research Company, 1972 . (a)
34.
Koenig, C. H. Charting the future course of behavior. Box 3222, Kansas City, Ks.: Precision Media, 1972 . (b)
35.
Kunzelmann, H., Cohen, M., Hulten, W., Martin, G., & Mingo, A.Precision teaching: An initial training sequence. Seattle: Special Child Publications, 1970.
36.
Lawrence, T. M.(Ed.). Teaching Exceptional Children, 1971, 3, 105–164.
37.
Lindsley, O. R.Direct measurement and prosthesis of retarded behavior. Journal of Education, 1964, 147, 62–81.
38.
Lindsley, O. R.From Skinner to precision teaching: The child knows best. Let's try doing something else kind of thing: Behavior principles and the exceptional child. Arlington, Va.: Council for Exceptional Children, 1972. (a)
39.
Lindsley, O. R.Precise behavioral management annual short course — second session (July). Kansas City, Mo., 1972. (b)
40.
McCracken, R. A.The development and validation of the standard reading inventory for the individual appraisal of reading performance in grades one through six (Doctoral dissertation, Syracuse University, 1963). Dissertation Abstracts, 1964, 24, 5200. (University Microfilm No. 64–5659)
41.
Neely, M. D. Formative and summative analysis of daily progress: Celeration bank directions and dictionary — 7401. Unpublished document, Thurston County Cooperative, Olympia (Wa.) School District, 1973 . (a)
42.
Neely, M. D. Project in formative analysis with celeration bank: Celeration bank directions and dictionary — 7301. Unpublished document, Thurston County Cooperative, Olympia (Wa.) School District, 1973 . (b)
43.
Neely, M. D. Six years of supervising a special education program by learning products. Doctoral dissertation in progress, University of Kansas, 1978 .
44.
Neufeld, K. Charting learning at different reading mastery levels. Doctoral dissertation in progress, University of Kansas and Tabor College, 1978 .
45.
Neufeld, K., & Lindsley, O. R.Charting children's rate of progress at four placement levels. Paper presented at the meeting of the International Reading Association, Houston, May 1978.
46.
Pennypacker, H. S., Koenig, C. H., & Lindsley, O. R.Handbook of the standard behavior chart (Preliminary ed.). Box 3351, Kansas City, Ks. 66103: Precision Media, 1972.
47.
Precision Media. Precise behavioral management literature: Source listing. Box 3222, Kansas City, Ks. 66103: Precision Media, 1976.
48.
Ramsey, S. M. Management and accountability in the classroom — 7500 and 7501. Unpublished document, Thurston County Cooperative, Olympia (Wa.) School District, 1974 .
49.
Smith, N. B., & Harris, A.Graded selections for informal reading diagnosis, grades 4 through 6. New York: New York University Press, 1963.
50.
Sokolove, H. E.The accelerator. Kansas City, Ks.: Shawnee Mission Public Schools, 1977–1978.
51.
Spache, G. D.A new readability formula for primary grade reading materials. Elementary School Journal, 1953, 53, 410–413.
52.
Spache, G. D.Diagnostic reading scales. Monterey, Ca.: California Test Bureau, 1963.
53.
Spache, G. D.Reading in the elementary school. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1964.
54.
Spache, G. D.The teaching of reading. Bloomington, Ind.: Phi Delta Kappa, 1972.
55.
Starlin, C.Evaluating progress toward reading proficiency. In E. Bateman (Ed.), Learning disorders (Vol. 4). Seattle: Special Child Publications, 1971.
56.
Strang, R.Diagnostic teaching of reading. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964.
57.
Vogel, M., & Washburne, C.An objective method of determining grade placement of children's reading material. Elementary School Journal, 1928, 28, 373–381.
58.
Washington State Superintendent of Public Instruction. Progress report III, Child service demonstration programs in Seattle-Spokane-Tacoma for precise educational remediation for managers of specific learning disabilities programs. Unpublished document, Author, 1973.
59.
White, J. F.Average learnings compared with learning picture distributions for easy and difficult 8th grade mathematics practice. Unpublished master's thesis, University of Kansas, 1977.
60.
White, O. R., & Haring, N. G.Exceptional teaching: A multimedia training package. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merril, 1976.
