A counterbalanced, multiple-baseline, across-subjects design was used to determine if attention and performance monitoring had differential effects on the on-task and spelling study behavior of 6 elementary students with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in the general education classroom. Both self-monitoring of attention and self-monitoring of performance had positive effects on students' on-task and spelling study behaviors. While improvement in on-task behavior was comparable across the two interventions, self-monitoring of attention produced substantially higher gains in spelling study behavior among 4 of the 6 students. Although this is the first study in which differential effects of these 2 interventions have been investigated among students with ADHD, previous studies with students with learning disabilities (LD) have found that self-monitoring of performance tended to result in higher rates of spelling study than did self-monitoring of attention. Possible reasons for this difference among students with ADHD and those with LD are noted, as are directions for future research and recommendations for teachers regarding the implementation of self-monitoring interventions.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Abikoff, H. (1985). Efficacy of cognitive training interventions in hyperactive children: A critical review. Clinical Psychology Review, 5, 479—512.
2.
Abikoff, H. (1991). Cognitive training in ADHD children: Less to it than meets the eye. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 24, 205—209.
3.
Bailey, J., & Bostow, D. (1979). Research methods in applied behavior analysis . Tallahassee, FL: Copy Grafix .
4.
Barkley, R.A. (1990). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A handbook for diagnosis and treatment. New York: Guilford Press.
5.
Barkley, R.A. (1994). The assessment of attention in children. In G. R. Lyon (Ed.), Frames of references for assessment of learning disabilities (pp. 69—102). Baltimore: Brookes.
6.
Barkley, R.A. (1995). Taking charge of ADHD. New York: Guilford Press.
7.
Barkley, R.A. (1997). Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention and executive functions: Constructing a unifying theory of ADHD. Psychological Bulletin,121, 65—94.
8.
Barkley, R.A., Copeland, A.P., & Sivage, C. (1980). A self-control classroom for hyperactive children . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 10, 75—89.
9.
Braswell, L. (1998, February). Self-regulation training for children with ADHD: Response to Harris and Schmidt. The ADHD Report , 6, 1—3.
10.
Burke, J.C. (1992). Decreasing classroom behavior problems: Practical guidelines for teachers. San Diego: Singular.
11.
Christie, D.J., Hiss, M., & Lozanoff, B. (1984). Hyperactive children's use of self-recording with teacher guidance. Behavior Modification, 8, 391—406.
12.
Davies, S., & Witte, R. (2000). Self-management and peer-monitoring within a group contingency to decrease uncontrolled verbalizations of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Psychology in the Schools, 37, 135—147.
13.
DuPaul, G.J., & Eckert, T.L. (1997). School-based interventions for children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A meta analysis. School Psychology Review, 26, 5—27.
14.
DuPaul, G.J., Eckert, T.L., & McGoey, K.E. (1997). Interventions for students with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: One size does not fit all. School Psychology Review, 26, 369—381.
15.
DuPaul, G.J., & Stoner, G. (2002). Interventions for attention problems. In M. R. Shinn, H. M. Walker, & G. Stoner (Eds.), Interventions for academic and behavior problems II: Preventive and remedial approaches (pp. 913—938). Bethesda, MD: NASP.
16.
DuPaul, G.J., & Stoner, G. (2003). ADHD in the schools: Assessment and intervention strategies. New York: Guilford Press .
17.
Edwards, L., Salant, V., Howard, V.F., Brougher, J., & McLaughlin, T.F. (1995). Effectiveness of self-management on attentional behavior and reading comprehension for children with attention deficit disorder. Child & Family Behavior Therapy, 17, 1—17.
18.
Fantuzzo, J.W., Polite, K., Cook, D.M., & Quinn, G. (1988). An evaluation of the effectiveness of teacher-vs.-student—managed interventions with elementary school students. Psychology in the Schools, 25, 154—163.
19.
Fowler, S.A. (1986). Peer-monitoring and self-monitoring: Alternatives to traditional teacher management. Exceptional Children, 52, 573—581.
20.
Fraser, C., Belzner, R., & Conte, R. (1992). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and self-control . School Psychology International, 13, 339—345.
21.
Frick, P.J., Kamphaus, R.W., Lahey, B.B., Loeber, R., Christ, M.A.G., Hart, E.L., et al. (1991). Academic underachievement and the disruptive behavior disorders. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 59, 289—294.
22.
Graham, S. (1983). Effective spelling instruction. Elementary School Journal, 83, 560—567.
23.
Graham, S. (1999). Handwriting and spelling instruction for students with learning disabilities: A review. Learning Disability Quarterly, 22, 78—98.
Hallahan, D., Lloyd, J., Kauffman, J., & Loper, A. (1983). Academic problems. In R. Morris & T. Kratochwill (Eds.), Practice of child therapy: A textbook of methods (pp. 113—141). New York: Pergamon Press.
26.
Hallahan, D., Lloyd, J., Kneedler, R., & Marshall, K. (1982). A comparison of the effects of self- versus teacher assessment of on-task behavior. Behavior Therapy, 13, 714—723.
27.
Hallahan, D., Lloyd, J., & Stroller, L. (1982). Improving attention with self-monitoring: A manual for teachers. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Learning Disabilities Research Institute.
28.
Hallahan, D., & Sapona, R. (1983). Self-monitoring of attention with learning disabled children. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 16, 616—620.
Harris, K. (1986). Self-monitoring of attentional behavior vs. self-monitoring of productivity: Effects on on-task behavior and academic response rate among learning disabled children. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis , 19, 417—423.
31.
Harris, K.R., Graham, S., Reid, R., McElroy, K., & Hamby, R. (1994). Self-monitoring of attention versus self-monitoring of performance: Replication and cross-task comparison. Learning Disability Quarterly, 17, 121—139.
32.
Harris, K.R., & Schmidt, T. (1997, April). Learning self-regulation in the classroom . The ADHD Report, 5, 1—6.
33.
Harris, K.R., & Schmidt, T. (1998, June). Developing self-regulation does not equal self-instructional training: Reply to Braswell. The ADHD Report , 6, 7—11.
34.
Hoff, K.E., & DuPaul, G.J. (1998). Reducing disruptive behavior in general education classrooms: The use of self-management strategies. School Psychology Review, 27, 290—303.
35.
Kanfer, F.H. (1971). The maintenance of behavior by self-generated stimuli and reinforcement. In A. Jacobs & L. B. Sachs (Eds.), The psychology of private events (pp. 39—75). New York: Academic Press.
36.
Kanfer, F.H. (1977). The many faces of self-control, or behavior modification changes its focus. In R. B. Stuart (Ed.), Behavioral self-management (pp. 1—48). New York : Brunner/Mazel.
37.
Lam, A.L., Cole, C.L., Shapiro, E.S., & Bambara, L.M. (1994). Relative effects of self-monitoring on-task behavior, academic accuracy, and disruptive behavior in students with behavior disorders . School Psychology Review, 23, 44—58.
38.
Mathes, M.Y., & Bender, W.N. (1997). The effects of self-monitoring on children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder who are receiving pharmacological interventions. Remedial and Special Education, 18, 121—143.
39.
O'Leary, S., & Dubey, D. (1979). Applications of self-control procedures by children: A review. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 12, 449—465.
40.
Purdie, N., Hattie, J., & Carroll, A. (2002). A review of research on interventions for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: What works best?Review of Educational Research, 72, 61—99.
41.
Reid, R. (1993). Implementing self-monitoring interventions in the classroom: Lessons from research. Monograph in Behavior Disorders: Severe Behavior Disorders in Youth, 16, 43—54.
42.
Reid, R. (1996). Research in self-monitoring with students with learning disabilities: The present, the prospects, the pitfalls. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 29, 317—331.
43.
Reid, R., & Harris, K.R. (1989). Self-monitoring of performance. LD Forum, 15, 39—42.
44.
Reid, R., & Harris, K.R. (1993). Self-monitoring of attention versus self-monitoring of performance: Effects on attention and academic performance. Exceptional Children, 60, 29—40.
45.
Reid, R., Trout, A.L., & Schartz, M. (in press). Self-regulation interventions for children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Exceptional Children.
46.
Reif, S.F. (1993). How to reach and teach ADD/ADHD children: Practical techniques, strategies and interventions for helping children with attention problems and hyperactivity. West Nyack, NY: Center for Applied Research in Education.
47.
Robinson, T.R., Smith, S.W., Miller, M.D., & Brownell, M.T. (1999). Cognitive behavior modification of hyperactivity—impulsivity and aggres
48.
sion: A meta-analysis of school-based studies. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91(2), 195—203.
49.
Semrud-Clikeman, M., Nielsen, K.H., Clinton, A., Sylvester, L., Parle, N., & Connor, R.T. (1999). An intervention approach for children with teacher- and parent-identified attentional difficulties. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 32, 581—590.
50.
Shapiro, E.S., DuPaul, G.J., & Bradley-Klug, K.L. (1998). Self-management as a strategy to improve the classroom behavior of adolescents with ADHD. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 31, 545—561.
51.
Shapiro, E.S., Durnan, S.L., Post, E.E., & Levinson, T.S. (2002). Self-monitoring interventions for children and adolescents. In M. R. Shinn, H. M. Walker, & G. Stoner (Eds.), Interventions for academic and behavior problems II: Preventive and remedial approaches (pp. 913—938). Bethesda, MD: NASP.
52.
Shimabukuro, S.M., Prater, M.A., Jenkins, A., & Edelen-Smith, P. (1999). The effects of self-monitoring of academic performance on students with learning disabilities and ADD/ADHD . Education & Treatment of Children, 22, 397—414.
53.
Wechsler, D. (1991). Wechsler intelligence scale for children —3 . San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corp.
54.
Woodcock, R., & Johnson, M. (1989). Woodcock-Johnson psycho-educational battery—Revised . Chicago: Riverside.
55.
Zimmerman, B., & Schunk, D. (1989). Self-regulated learning and academic achievement: Theory, research, and practice. New York: Springer Verlag.
