The lack of qualified special education teachers threatens the quality of education that students with disabilities receive. Attrition plays a part in the teacher shortage problem, and efforts to improve retention must be informed by an understanding of the factors that contribute to attrition. Specifically, the author provides a thematic analysis of studies investigating factors that contribute to special education teacher attrition and retention. She addresses four major themes: teacher characteristics and personal factors, teacher qualifications, work environments, and teachers' affective reactions to work. Following this thematic review, a critique of definitional, conceptual, and methodological approaches used to study special education attrition is provided, as are priorities for future research.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
A high-quality teacher for every classroom. (n.d.). SPeNSE factsheet. Retrieved January 9, 2002, from www.spense.org
2.
Banks, S.R., & Necco, E. (1987). Alternative certification, educational training and job longevity. Action in Teacher Education, 9(1), 67—73.
3.
Billingsley, B.S. (1993). Teacher retention and attrition in special and general education: A critical review of the literature. The Journal of Special Education, 27, 137—174.
4.
Billingsley, B. (2002a). Beginning special educators: Characteristics, qualifications, and experiences. SPeNSE factsheet. Retrieved March 2002, from www.spense.org
5.
Billingsley, B. (2002b). Improving special education teacher retention: Implications from a decade of research. The Journal of Special Education Leadership, 15, 20—26.
6.
Billingsley, B.S., Bodkins, D., & Hendricks, M.B. (1993). Why special educators leave teaching: Implications for administrators. Case in Point, 7(2), 23—38.
7.
Billingsley, B., Carlson, E., & Klein, S. (in press). The working conditions and induction support of early career special educators. Exceptional Children.
8.
Billingsley, B.S., & Cross, L.H. (1991). Teachers' decisions to transfer from special to general education. The Journal of Special Education, 24, 496— 511.
9.
Billingsley, B.S., & Cross, L.H. (1992). Predictors of commitment, job satisfaction, and intent to stay in teaching: A comparison of general and special educators . The Journal of Special Education, 25, 453—471.
10.
Billingsley, B., Pyecha, J., Smith-Davis, J., Murray, K., & Hendricks, M.B. (1995). Improving the retention of special education teachers: Final report (Prepared for Office of Special Education Programs, Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services, U.S. Department of Education, under Cooperative Agreement H023Q10001). (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED379860)
11.
Billingsley, B.S., & Tomchin, E.M. (1992). Four beginning LD teachers: What their experiences suggest for trainers and employers. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 7, 104—112.
12.
Blanton, L., Sindelar, P., Correa, V., Hardman, M., McDonnell, J., & Kuhel, K. (2002). Research summary: Conceptions of beginning teacher quality: Models for conducting research. Gainesville: University of Florida, Center on Personnel Studies in Special Education.
13.
Boe, E.E., Barkanic, G., & Leow, C.S. (1999). Retention and attrition of teachers at the school level: National trends and predictors. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, Graduate School of Education, Center for Research and Evaluation in Social Policy. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED436485)
14.
Boe, E.E., Bobbitt, S.A., & Cook, L.H. (1997). Whither didst thou go? Retention, reassignment, migration, and attrition of special and general education teachers in national perspective. The Journal of Special Education, 30, 371—389.
15.
Boe, E.E., Bobbitt, S.A., Cook, L.H., Barkanic, G., & Maislin, G. (1999). Teacher turnover in eight cognate areas: National trends and predictors. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, Graduate School of Education, Center for Research and Evaluation in Social Policy.
16.
Boe, E.E., Bobbitt, S.A., Cook, L.H., Whitener, S.D., & Weber, A.L. (1997). Why didst thou go? Predictors of retention, transfer, and attrition of special and general education teachers from a national perspective . The Journal of Special Education, 30, 390—411.
17.
Boe, E.E., Cook, L.H., Bobbitt, S.A., & Weber, A.L. (1998). Retention and attrition of teachers at the district level: National trends in special and general education. Reston, VA: National Clearinghouse for Professions in Special Education.
18.
Boyer, L., & Gillespie, P. (2000). Keeping the committed: The importance of induction and support programs for new special educators. Teaching Exceptional Children, 33(1), 10—15.
19.
Brownell, M.T., & Smith, S.W. (1992). Attrition/retention of special education teachers: Critique of current research and recommendations for retention efforts. Teacher Education and Special Education, 15, 229— 248.
20.
Brownell, M.T., & Smith, S.W. (1993). Understanding special education teacher attrition: A conceptual model and implications for teacher educators. Teacher Education and Special Education, 16, 370—382.
21.
Brownell, M.T., Smith, S.W., McNellis, J., & Lenk, L. (1994—1995). Career decisions in special education: Current and former teachers' personal views. Exceptionality , 5, 83—102.
22.
Brownell, M.T., Smith, S.W., McNellis, J., & Miller, M.D. (1997). Attrition in special education: Why teachers leave the classroom and where they go. Exceptionality, 7, 143—155.
23.
Brownell, M.T., Yeager, E., Rennells, M.S., & Riley, T. (1997). Teachers working together: What teacher educators and researchers should know. Teacher Education and Special Education, 20, 340—359.
24.
Carlson, E., & Billingsley, B. (2001, July). Working conditions in special education: Current research and implications for the field. Paper presented at the OSEP Project Directors' Conference, Washington, DC.
25.
Chapman, D.W., & Green, M.S. (1986). Teacher retention: A further examination. Journal of Educational Research, 79, 273—279.
26.
Cooley, E., & Yovanoff, P. (1996). Supporting professionals-at-risk: Evaluating interventions to reduce burnout and improve retention of special educators. Exceptional Children, 62, 336—355.
27.
Corcoran, T.B., Walker, L.J., & White, J.L. (1988). Working in urban schools. Washington, DC: Institute for Educational Leadership .
28.
Council for Exceptional Children. (2000). Bright futures for exceptional learners: An action to achieve quality conditions for teaching and learning. Reston, VA: Author.
29.
Cross, L.H., & Billingsley, B. (1994). Testing a model of special educators' intent to stay in teaching. Exceptional Children , 60, 411—421.
30.
Darling-Hammond, L. (1999, September). Paper presented at the National Commission on Mathematics and Science Teaching for the 21st Century . Received June 18, 2001, from http://www.ed.gov/inits/Math/glenn/LDHtran2.html
31.
Darling-Hammond, L., & Sclan, E.M. (1996). Who teaches and why: Dilemmas of building a profession for twenty-first century schools. In J. Sikula , T. J. Buttery, & E. Guyton (Eds.), Handbook of research on teacher education (2nd ed., pp.67—101). New York: Simon & Schuster.
32.
Dworkin, A.G. (1980). The changing demography of public school teachers: Some implications for faculty turnover in urban areas. Sociology of Education, 53, 65—73.
33.
Embich, J.L. (2001). The relationship of secondary special education teachers' roles and factors that lead to professional burnout. Teacher Education and Special Education, 24(1), 58—69.
34.
Frank, A.R., & McKenzie, R. (1993). The development of burnout among special educators . Teacher Education and Special Education, 16, 161— 170.
35.
Frank, M., & Keith, T.Z. (1984). Academic abilities of persons entering and remaining in special education. Exceptional Children, 51, 76—77.
36.
George, N.L., George, M.P., Gersten, R., & Grosenick, J.R. (1995). To leave or to stay? An exploratory study of teachers of students with emotional and behavioral disorders . Remedial and Special Education, 16, 227— 236.
37.
Gersten, R., Keating, T., Yovanoff, P., & Harniss, M.K. (2001). Working in special education: Factors that enhance special educators' intent to stay. Exceptional Children, 67, 549—567.
38.
Gold, Y. (1996). Beginning teacher support: Attrition, mentoring, and induction. In J. Sikula, T. J. Buttery, & E. Guyton (Eds.), Handbook of research on teacher education (2nd ed., pp.548—594). New York: Simon & Schuster.
39.
Grissmer, D.W., & Kirby, S.N. (1987). Teacher attrition: The uphill climb to sta f the nation's schools. Santa Monica, CA: The RAND Corporation.
40.
Henke, R.R., Choy, S.P., Chen, X., Geis, S., & Alt, N. (1997). Teachers in the 1990's: Profile of a profession (NCES97-460). Berkeley, CA: Office of Educational Research and Improvement.
41.
Heyns, B. (1988). Educational defectors: A first look at teacher attrition in the NS-72. Educational Researcher, 17, 24—32.
42.
Ingersoll, R.M. (2001). Teacher turnover, teacher shortages and the organization of schools (Document R-01-1). Seattle: University of Washington, Center for the Study of Teaching and Policy.
43.
Kilgore, K.L., & Griffin, C.C. (1998). Beginning special educators: Problems of practice and the influence of school context. Teacher Education and Special Education, 21, 155—173.
44.
LeCompte, D., & Dworkin, A.G. (1991). Giving up on school: Student dropouts and teacher burnouts. Newbury Park, CA: Corwin .
45.
Littrell, P., Billingsley, B., & Cross, L. (1994). The effects of principal support on special and general educators' stress, job satisfaction, school commitment, health, and intent to stay in teaching. Remedial and Special Education , 15, 297—310.
46.
Maslach, C. (1982). Burnout: The cost of caring. New York: Prentice Hall.
47.
Miller, M.D., Brownell, M., & Smith, S.W. (1999). Factors that predict teachers staying in, leaving, or transferring from the special education classroom. Exceptional Children, 65, 201—218.
48.
Morsink, C.V. (1982, February). Changes in the role of special educators: Public perceptions and demands. Exceptional Education Quarterly , 15—25.
49.
Morvant, M., Gersten, R., Gillman, J., Keating, T., & Blake, G. (1995). Attrition/retention of urban special education teachers: Multi-faceted research and strategic action planning. Final performance report, Volume 1. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED338154)
50.
Mowday, R.T., Porter, L.M., & Steers, R.M. (1982). Employee—organization linkables: The psychology of commitment, absenteeism, and turnover. New York: Academic Press.
51.
Murnane, R.J., Singer, J.D., & Willett, J.B. (1988). The career paths of teachers: Implications for teacher supply and methodological issues for research. Educational Researcher, 17(6), 22—30.
52.
Paperwork in Special Education. (n.d.). SPeNSE factsheet. Retreived January 9, 2002, from www.spense.org
53.
Pugach, M.C. (1992). Uncharted territory: Research on the socialization of special education teachers. Teacher Education and Special Education, 15, 133—147.
54.
Rosenberg, M.S., Griffin, C.C., Kilgore, K.L., & Carpenter, S.L. (1997). Beginning teachers in special education: A model for providing individualized support. Teacher Education and Special Education, 20, 301—321.
55.
Rosenholtz, S.J. (1989). Workplace conditions that affect teacher quality and commitment: Implications for teacher inductive programs. The Elementary School Journal, 89, 421—439.
56.
Schnorr, J.M. (1995). Teacher retention: A CSPD analysis and planning model. Teacher Education and Special Education, 18(1), 22—38.
57.
Singer, J.D. (1992). Are special educators' career paths special? Results from a 13-year longitudinal study. Exceptional Children, 59, 262—279.
58.
Singh, K., & Billingsley, B. (1996). Intent to stay in teaching: Teachers of students with emotional disorders versus other special educators . Remedial and Special Education, 17, 37—47.
59.
Singh, K., & Billingsley, B. (1998). Professional support and its effects on teachers' commitment. The Journal of Educational Research, 91, 229— 239.
60.
Smith-Davis, G., Burke, P.J., & Noel, M. (1984). Personnel to educate the handicapped in America: Supply and demand from a programmatic viewpoint. College Park: University of Maryland, Institute for the Study of Exceptional Children and Youth.
61.
Smith-Davis, J., & Billingsley, B. (1993). The supply/demand puzzle . Teacher Education and Special Education, 16, 205—220.
62.
Veenman, S. (1984). Perceived problems of beginning teachers. Review of Educational Research, 54, 143—178.
63.
Westling, D.L., & Whitten, T.M. (1996). Rural special education teachers' plans to continue or leave their teaching positions. Exceptional Children, 62, 319—335.
64.
Whitaker, S.D. (2000). Mentoring beginning special education teachers and the relationship to attrition. Exceptional Children, 66, 546—566.
65.
Wisniewski, L., & Gargiulo, R.M. (1997). Occupational stress and burnout among special educators: A review of the literature. The Journal of Special Education, 31, 325—346.
66.
Yee, S.M. (1990). Careers in the classroom: When teaching is more than a job. New York: Teachers College Press.
67.
Zabel, R.H., & Zabel, M.K. (2001). Revisiting burnout among special education teachers: Do age, experience, and preparation still matter?Teacher Education and Special Education, 24, 128—139.
