The purpose of this multiple case study was to describe three expert middle school band teachers’ decision-making processes before, during, and after instruction. The following research question guided this study: What were the thought processes underlying expert middle school band teachers’ decisions before, during, and after instruction? Cross-case analysis guided by the teacher as reflective decision-maker model suggested that participants’ decisions before instruction were concerned with (a) mental templates, (b) learning goals, and (c) reflections, contingencies, and anticipations. During instruction, participants’ decisions were related to (a) reacting and responding, (b) choosing to pivot, and (c) emotional skills. Finally, as participants reflected after instruction, their decisions were characterized by (a) self-focus, (b) short-term versus long-term goals, and (c) reflective thinking. Findings suggest that metacognitive skills play a key role in the construction of expert band teachers’ specialized, automatized knowledge. Implications for music education are discussed.
BazanD. E. (2010). Planning and assessment practices of high school band directors. In ThompsonL. K.CampbellM. R. (Eds.), Issues of identity in music education: Narratives and practices (pp. 109–125). Information Age Publishing.
2.
BergeeM. J. (2005). An exploratory comparison of novice, intermediate, and expert orchestral conductors. International Journal of Music Education, 23(1), 23–36. https://doi.org/10.1177/0255761405050928
BlackwellJ. (2020a). Differentiating between teaching experience and expertise in the music studio: A pilot study. Research Studies in Music Education, 43(1), 74–87. https://doi.org/10.1177/1321103X19899172
5.
BlackwellJ. (2020b). Expertise in applied studio teaching: Teachers working with multiple levels of learners. International Journal of Music Education, 38(2), 283–298. https://doi.org/10.1177/0255761419898312
6.
BorkoH.LivingstonC. (1989). Cognition and improvisation: Differences in mathematics instruction by expert and novice teachers. American Educational Research Journal, 26(4), 473–498. https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312026004473
7.
BrittinR. V. (2005). Pre-service and experienced teachers’ lesson plans for beginning instrumentalists. Journal of Research in Music Education, 53(1), 26–39. https://doi.org/10.1177/002242940505300103
8.
ButkeM. A. (2006). Reflection on practice: A study of five choral educators’ reflective journeys. Update: Applications of Research in Music Education, 25(1), 57–69. https://doi.org/10.1177/87551233060250010107
CavittM. E. (2003). A descriptive analysis of error correction in instrumental music rehearsals. Journal of Research in Music Education, 51(3), 218–230. https://doi.org/10.2307/3345375
11.
ClarkC. M.PetersonP. L. (1986). Teachersʼ thought processes. In WittrockM. C. (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching (3rd ed., pp. 255–296). Macmillan.
12.
ColtonA.Sparks-LangerG. M. (1993). A conceptual framework to guide the development of teacher reflection and decision making. Journal of Teacher Education, 44(1), 44–54. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022487193044001007
13.
CreswellJ. W.PothC. N. (2018). Qualitative inquiry & research design: Choosing among five approaches. Sage Publications.
14.
DukeR. A.SimmonsA. L. (2006). The nature of expertise: Narrative descriptions of 19 common elements observed in the lessons of three renowned artist-teachers. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 170, 7–19. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40319345
15.
ForresterS. (2019). The evolution and use of verbal protocols in the study of music teacher cognition. Contributions to Music Education, 44, 127–144. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26724263
16.
ForresterS. H. (2018). Music teacher knowledge: An examination of the intersections between instrumental music teaching and conducting. Journal of Research in Music Education, 65(4), 461–482. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022429417742124
17.
GassS. M.MackeyA. (2016). Stimulated recall methodology in applied linguistics and L2 research. Routledge.
18.
GoolsbyT. W. (1996). Time use in instrumental rehearsals: A comparison of experienced, novice, and student teachers. Journal of Research in Music Education, 44(4), 286–303. https://doi.org/10.2307/3345442
19.
GoolsbyT. W. (1997). Verbal instruction in instrumental rehearsals: A comparison of three career levels and preservice teacher. Journal of Research in Music Education, 45(1), 21–40. https://doi.org/10.2307/3345463
20.
GoolsbyT. W. (1999). A comparison of expert and novice music teachers’ preparing identical band compositions: An operational replication. Journal of Research in Music Education, 47(2), 174–187. https://doi.org/10.2307/3345722
21.
GriffeyD. C.HousnerL. D. (1991). Differences between experienced and inexperienced teachersʼ planning decisions, interactions, student engagement, and instructional climate. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 52(1), 196–204. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.1991.10608710
22.
GünB. (2014). Making sense of experienced teachers’ interactive decisions: Implications for expertise in teaching. International Journal of Instruction, 7(1), 75–90.
23.
HousnerL. D.GriffeyD. C. (1985). Teacher cognition: Differences in planning and interactive decision making between experienced and inexperienced teachers. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 56(1), 45–53. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.1985.10608430
24.
JohnsonD. C.MatthewsW. K. (2017). Experienced general music teachers’ instructional decision making. International Journal of Music Education, 35(2), 189–201. https://doi.org/10.1177/0255761415620531
25.
JungJ. (2012). The focus, role, and meaning of experienced teachers’ reflection in physical education. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 17(2), 157–175. https://doi.org/10.1080/17408989.2011.565471
26.
LinnenbrinkE. A. (2006). Emotion research in education: Theoretical and methodological perspectives on the integration of affect, motivation, and cognition. Educational Psychology Review, 18, 307–314. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-006-9028-x
27.
MackenzieS. H.KerrJ. H. (2012). Head-mounted cameras and stimulated recall in qualitative sport research. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health, 4(1), 51–61. https://doi.org/10.1080/2159676X.2011.653495
28.
MatthewsW. K.JohnsonD. C. (2019). Instructional decision making among expert choral and instrumental directors: How musical setting influences pedagogy. Research and Issues in Music Education, 15(1), Article 4. https://commons.lib.jmu.edu/rime/vol15/iss1/4
29.
MillicanJ. S. (2013). Describing instrumental music teachers’ thinking: Implications for understanding pedagogical content knowledge. Update: Applications of Research in Music Education, 31(2), 45–53. https://doi.org/10.1177/8755123322473761
30.
MillicanJ. S. (2017). Examining pedagogical content knowledge of an expert band director teaching lips slurs. Journal of Music Teacher Education, 26(2), 90–103. https://doi.org/10.1177/8755123312473761
31.
MillicanJ. S.ForresterS. H. (2017). Core Practices in Music Teaching: A Delphi Expert Panel Survey. Journal of Music Teacher Education, 27(3), 51–64. https://doi.org/10.1177/1057083717736243
32.
O’BrienK.NortonR. (1991). Beliefs, practices, and constraints: Influences on teacher decision making processes. Teacher Education Quarterly, 18(1), 29–38. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23475078
33.
PalmerD. J.StoughL. M.BurdenskiT. K.Jr.GonzalesM. (2005). Identifying teacher expertise: An examination of researchers’ decision making. Educational Psychologist, 40(1), 13–25. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep4001_2
34.
PattonM. Q. (2002). Qualitative research & evaluation methods. Sage.
35.
PetersonP. L.ComeauxM. A. (1987). Teachers’ schemata for classroom events: The mental scaffolding of teachers’ thinking during classroom instruction. Teaching and Teacher Education, 3(4), 319–331. https://doi.org/10.1016/0742-051X(87)90024-2
36.
PontiousM. F. (1982). A profile of rehearsal techniques and interaction of selected band conductors [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. https://ideals.illinois.edu/handle/2142/70817
37.
ResnickL. B.KlopferL. E. (1989). Toward the thinking curriculum: An overview. In ResnickL. B.KlopferL. E. (Eds.), Toward the thinking curriculum: Current cognitive research (pp. 1–18). Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
38.
ReynoldsA. M.BeitlerN. S. (2007). Reflective practice in a middle-school instrumental setting. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 173, 55–69. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40319470
39.
RoweV. C. (2009). Using video-stimulated recall as a basis for interviews: Some experiences from the field. Music Education Research, 11(4), 425–437. https://doi.org/10.1080/14613800903390766
40.
SaldañaJ. (2021). The coding manual for qualitative researchers. Sage Publications.
41.
SaldañaJ.OmastaM. (2018). Qualitative research: Analyzing life. SAGE Publications.
42.
SchmidtC. (2021). The reflective practices of early and late career music educators. Research Studies in Music Education, 44(1), 110–126. https://doi.org/10.1177/1321103X211016891
43.
SchönD. A. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. Basic Books.
44.
ShavelsonR. J.SternP. (1981). Research on teachers’ pedagogical thoughts, judgments, decisions, and behavior. Review of Educational Research, 51(4), 455–498. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543051004455
45.
ShawR. D. (2017). I can hardly wait to see what I am going to do today: Lesson planning perspectives of experienced band teachers. Contributions to Music Education, 42, 129–152. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26367440
SingletaryL. (2021). Comparing time use and teacher behaviors in beginning and advanced middle school band settings: An exploratory study. Update: Applications of Research in Music Education, 40(1), 27–35. https://doi.org/10.1177/87551233211006388
48.
StandleyJ. M.MadsenC. K. (1991). An observation procedure to differentiate teaching experience and expertise in music education. Journal of Research in Music Education, 39(1), 5–11. https://doi.org/10.2307/3344604
49.
Tremblay-BeatonK. L. (2019). “Caught in the middle”: Investigating middle school teachers’ pedagogical approaches in instrumental music class (Publication No. 13899936) [Doctoral dissertation, University of Toronto]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.
50.
van DrielS.CrasbornF.WolffC. E.Brand-GruwelS.JarodzkaH. (2021). Exploring preservice, beginning and experienced teachers’ noticing of classroom management situations from an actor’s perspective. Teaching and Teacher Education, 106, Article 103435. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2021.103435
WorthyM. D. (2003). Rehearsal frame analysis of an expert wind conductor in high school vs. college band rehearsals. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 156, 11–19. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40319170
54.
WorthyM. D. (2006). Observations of three expert wind conductors in college rehearsals. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 168, 51–61. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40319460
55.
WorthyM. D.ThompsonB. L. (2009). Observation and analysis of expert teaching in beginning band. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 180, 29–41. https://doi.org/10.2307/40319318
56.
YinR. K. (2018). Case study research and applications: Design and methods (6th ed.). Sage.
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
