Examine the distribution and sources of crime across freestanding businesses in San Antonio. We test hypotheses about the main and interactive effects of neighborhood and business characteristics on crime at the business, with a focus on busy contexts and busy businesses.
Method:
Police crime incident data are spatially joined to study area business parcels. Additional data sources include Infogroup USA Business Data, the American Community Survey, and an Environmental Protection Agency traffic activity indicator. Multilevel negative binomial regression models are estimated to observe the main and interactive effects of census block group and business variables on crime at the parcel.
Results:
Businesses located in block groups with more commercial property and high levels of vehicular traffic experience more crime. In addition, crime is higher at “busy” businesses, as indicated by employee size, sales volume, and square footage. Busy contexts and busy businesses do not appear to interact to increase crime at the parcel beyond their main effects.
Conclusions:
Crime is clustered at relatively few businesses, and this variation cannot be explained by business type alone. Both neighborhood and business characteristics are associated with crime at freestanding businesses, with busy businesses and those within busier block groups experiencing more crime.
AndresenMartin A.MallesonNicolas. 2011. “Testing the Stability of Crime Patterns: Implications for Theory and Policy.” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency48:58–82.
2.
AskeyAmber PerenzinTaylorRalphGroffElizabethFingerhutAaron. 2018. “Fast Food Restaurants and Convenience Stores: Using Sales Volume to Explain Crime Patterns in Seattle.” Crime & Delinquency64:1836–1857.
3.
BlairLeslieWilcoxPamelaEckJohn. 2017. “Facilities, Opportunity, and Crime: An Exploratory Analysis of Places in Two Urban Neighborhoods.” Crime Prevention and Community Safety19:61–81.
4.
BoivinRemiFelsonMarcus. 2017. “Crimes by Visitors Versus Crimes by Residents: The Influence of Visitor Inflows.” Journal of Quantitative Criminology4:1–16.
5.
BragaAnthony A.HureauDavid M.PapachristosAndrew V.. 2011. “The Relevance of Micro Places to Citywide Robbery Trends: A Longitudinal Analysis of Robbery Incidents at Street Corners and Block Faces in Boston.” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency48:7–32.
6.
BragaAnthony A.PapachristosAndrew V.HureauDavid M.. 2010. “The Concentration and Stability of Gun Violence at Micro Places in Boston, 1980–2008.” Journal of Quantitative Criminology26:33–53.
7.
BrantinghamPatricia L.BrantinghamPaul J.. 1982. “Mobility, Notoriety, and Crime: A Study in the Crime Patterns of Urban Nodal Points.” Journal of Environmental Systems11:89–99.
8.
BrantinghamPatricia L.BrantinghamPaul J.. 1993. “Nodes, Paths, and Edges: Considerations on the Complexity of Crime and the Physical Environment.” Journal of Environmental Psychology13:3–28.
9.
BrantinghamPatricia L.BrantinghamPaul J.. 1995. “Criminality of Place: Crime Generators and Crime Attractors.” European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research3:5–26.
10.
BrantinghamPatricia L.BrantinghamPaul J.VajihollaniMonaWuschkeKathryn. 2009. “Crime Analysis at Multiple Scales of Aggregation: A Topological Approach.” Pp. 87-107 in Putting Crime in Its Place: in Units of Analysis in Geographic Criminology, edited by WeisburdDavidBernascoWimBruinsmaGerben J. N.. New York, NY: Springer.
11.
BurnazSebnemIlker TopcuY.. 2006. “A Multiple-criteria Decision-making Approach for the Evaluation of Retail Location.” Journal of Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis14:67–76.
12.
BursikRobert J.1988. “Social Disorganization and Theories of Crime and Delinquency: Problems and Prospects.” Criminology26:519–52.
13.
BursikRobert J.GrasmickHarold G.. 1993. Neighborhoods and Crime: The Dimensions of Effective Community Control. New York: Macmillan.
14.
CameronColin A.TrivediPravin K.. 2013. Regression Analysis of Count Data. 2nd Edition. New York: Cambridge University Press.
15.
ClarkeRonald V.CornishDerek B.. 1985. “Modeling Offenders’ Decisions: A Framework for Research and Policy.” Crime and Justice: A Review of Research6:147–85.
16.
ClarkeRonald V.EckJohn E.. 2005. Crime Analysis for Problem Solvers—In 60 Small Steps. Washington, DC: Center for Problem Oriented Policing.
17.
CohenLawrence E.FelsonMarcus. 1979. “Social Change and Crime Rate Trends: A Routine Activity Approach.” American Sociological Review4:588–608.
18.
CurmanAndrea S. N.AndresenMartin A.BrantinghamPaul J.. 2015. “Crime and Place: A Longitudinal Examination of Street Segment Patterns in Vancouver, BC.” Journal of Quantitative Criminology31:127–47.
19.
DeryolRustuWilcoxPamelaLoganMatthewWooldredgeJohn. 2016. “Crime Places in Context: An Illustration of the Multilevel Nature of Hot Spot Development.” Journal of Quantitative Criminology32:305–25.
20.
EckJohn E.1998. “Preventing Crime by Controlling Drug Dealing on Private Rental Property.” Security Journal11:37–43.
21.
EckJohn E.ClarkeRonald V.GueretteRob T.. 2007. “Risky Facilities: Crime Concentration in Homogeneous Sets of Establishments and Facilities.” Pp. 225-264 in Imagination for Crime Prevention: Crime Prevention Studies, edited by FarrellGrahamBowersKateJohnsonShaneTownsleyMichael. Monsey, NY: Criminal Justice Press.
22.
EckJohn E.EckEmily B.. 2012. “Crime Place and Pollution: Expanding Crime Reduction Options through a Regulatory Approach.” Criminology & Public Policy11:281–316.
23.
EckJohn E.GershJeffreyTaylorCharlene. 2000. “Finding Crime Hot Spots through Repeat Address Mapping.” Pp. 49-64 in Analyzing Crime Patterns: Frontiers of Practice, edited by GoldsmithVictorMcGuirePhilipMollenkopfJohnRossTimothy. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
24.
EckJohn E.WeisburdDavid. 1995. “Crime Places in Crime Theory.” Pp. 1-33 in Crime Prevention Studies, edited by EckJohn E.WeisburdDavid. Monsey, NY: Criminal Justice Press.
25.
FelsonMarcus. 1995. “Those Who Discourage Crime.” Pp. 53-66 in Crime and Place, edited by EckJohn E.WeisburdDavid. Monsey, NY: Criminal Justice Press.
26.
FelsonRichard B.MessnerSteven F.HoskinAnthony. 1999. “The Victim-offender Relationship and Calling the Police in Assaults.” Criminology37:931–47.
27.
GillCharlotteWooditchAleseWeisburdDavid. 2017. “Testing the “Law of Crime Concentration at Place” in a Suburban Setting: Implications for Research and Practice.” Journal of Quantitative Criminology33:519–45.
28.
GroffElizabethLockwoodBrian. 2014. “Criminogenic Facilities and Crime Across Street Segments in Philadelphia: Uncovering Evidence about the Spatial Extent of Facility Influence.” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency51:277–314.
29.
GroffElizabethMcCordEric S.. 2012. “The Role of Neighborhood Parks as Crime Generators.” Security Journal25:1–24.
30.
GuyClifford M.1998. “Classifications of Retail Stores and Shopping Centres: Some Methodological Issues.” GeoJournal45:255–64.
31.
HanaokaKazumasa. 2018. “New Insights on Relationships between Street Crimes and Ambient Population: Use of Hourly Population Data Estimated from Mobile Phone Users’ Locations.” Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design45:295–311.
32.
HippJohn R.BoessenAdam. 2013. “Egohoods as Waves Washing across the City: A New Measure of ‘Neighborhoods.’” Criminology51:287–327.
33.
JacobsBruce A.WrightRichard. 1999. “Stick-up, Street Culture, and Offender Motivation.” Criminology37:149–73.
34.
KinneyJ. BryanBrantinghamPatricia L.WuschkeKathrynKirkMichael G.BrantinghamPaul J.. 2008. “Crime Attractors, Generators, and Detractors: Land Use and Urban Crime Opportunities.” Built Environment34:62–74.
35.
KubrinCharis E.SquiresGregory D.GravesSteven M.OuseyGraham C.. 2011. “Does Fringe Banking Exacerbate Neighborhood Crime Rates? Investigating the Social Ecology of Payday Lending.” American Society of Criminology10:437–66.
36.
KurtzEllen M.KoonsBarbara A.TaylorRalph B.. 1998. “Land Use, Physical Deterioration, Resident-based Control, and Calls for Service on Urban Streetblocks.” Justice Quarterly15:121–49.
37.
LaGrangeTeresa C.1999. “The Impact of Neighborhoods, Schools, and Malls on the Spatial Distribution of Property Damage.” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency36:393–422.
38.
LinGeZhangTonglin. 2007. “Loglinear Residual Tests of Moran’s I Autocorrelation and Their Applications to Kentucky Breast Cancer Data.” Geographical Analysis39:293–310.
39.
LitzReginald A.RajaguruGulasekaran. 2008. “Does Small Store Location Matter? A Test of Three Classic Theories of Retail Location.” Journal of Small Business and Entrepreneurship21:477–92.
40.
LockwoodIan M.StillingsTimothy. 1998. Traffic Calming for Crime Reduction & Neighborhood Revitalization. West Palm Beach, FL: City of West Palm Beach.
41.
MadensenTamara D.2007. Bar Management and Crime: Toward a Dynamic Theory of Place Management and Crime Hotspots. Cincinnati, OH: University of Cincinnati.
42.
MietheTerance D.McDowallDavid. 1993. “Contextual Effects in Models of Criminal Victimization.” Social Forces71:741–59.
43.
O’BrienDaniel TumminelliWinshipChristopher. 2017. “The Gains of Greater Granularity: The Presence and Persistence of Problem Properties in Urban Neighborhoods.” Journal of Quantitative Criminology33:649–74.
44.
OpenshawStan. 1984. The Modifiable Areal Unit Problem. Norwich, England: Geo Books.
45.
OsgoodD. WayneChambersJeff M.. 2000. “Social Disorganization Outside the Metropolis: An Analysis of Rural Youth Violence.” Criminology38:81–115.
46.
PerdikakiOlaKesavanSaravananSwaminathanJayashankar M.. 2012. “Effect of Traffic on Sales and Conversion Rates of Retail Stores.” Manufacturing & Service Operations Management14:145–62.
47.
PrattTravis C.CullenFrancis T.. 2005. “Assessing Macro-level Predictors and Theories of Crime: A Meta-analysis.”Crime and Justice32:373–93.
48.
RaudenbushStephen W.BrykAnthony S.CongdonRichard T.. 2004. HLM 6 for Windows [Computer software]. Lincolnwood, IL: Scientific Software International.
49.
ReimersVaughanClulowVal. 2004. “Retail Concentration: A Comparison of Spatial Convenience in Shopping Strips and Shopping Centres.” Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services11:207–221.
50.
RoncekDennis W.BellRalph. 1981. “Bars, Blocks, and Crimes.” Journal of Environmental Systems11:35–47.
51.
RoncekDennis W.FaggianiDonald. 1985. “High Schools and Crime: A Replication.” Sociological Quarterly26:491–505.
52.
RoncekDennis W.LoBoscoAntoinette. 1983. “The Effect of High Schools on Crime in Their Neighborhoods.” Social Science Quarterly64:598–613.
53.
RoncekDennis W.MaierPamela A.. 1991. “Bars, Blocks, and Crimes Revisited: Linking the Theory of Routine Activities to the Empiricism of ‘Hot Spots.’” Criminology29:725–53.
54.
SampsonRobert J.Byron GrovesW.. 1989. “Community Structure and Crime: Testing Social-disorganization Theory.” The American Journal of Sociology94:774–802.
55.
SampsonRobert J.RaudenbushStephen W.EarlsFelton J.. 1997. “Neighborhoods and Violent Crime: A Multilevel Study of Collective Efficacy.” Science277:918–24.
ShawClifford R.McKayHenry D.. 1942. Juvenile Delinquency and Urban Areas. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
58.
ShermanLawrence W.GartinPatrick R.BuergerMichael E.. 1989. “Hot Spots of Predatory Crime: Routine Activities and the Criminology of Place.” Criminology27:27–55.
59.
SmithWilliam R.FrazeeSharon GlaveDavisonElizabeth L.. 2000. “Furthering the Integration of Routine Activity and Social Disorganization Theories: Small Units of Analysis and the Study of Street Robbery as a Diffusion Process.” Criminology38:489–523.
60.
SohnDong-Wook. 2016. “Do All Commercial Land Uses Deteriorate Neighborhood Safety? Examining the Relationship between Commercial Land-use Mix and Residential Burglary.” Habitat International55:148–58.
61.
SteenbeekWouterVolkerBeateFlapHenkOortFrank van. 2012. “Local Businesses as Attractors or Preventers of Neighborhood Disorder.” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency49:213–48.
62.
TokatliNebahatBoyaciYonca. 1998. “The Changing Retail Industry and Retail Landscapes.” Cities15:345–59.
63.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2017. Environmental Justice Mapping and Screening Tool. EJSCREEN Technical Documentation.
64.
WeisburdDavid. 2012. “Bringing Social Context Back into the Equation: The Importance of Social Characteristics of Places in the Prevention of Crime.” Criminology & Public Policy11:317–26.
65.
WeisburdDavid. 2015. “The Law of Crime Concentration and the Criminology of Place.” Criminology53:133–57.
66.
WeisburdDavidBushwayShawnLumCynthiaYangSue-Ming. 2004. “Trajectories of Crime at Places: A Longitudinal Study of Street Segments in the City of Seattle.” Criminology42:283–321.
67.
WeisburdDavidEckJohn E.BragaAnthony A.CaveBreanneBowersKateBruinsmaGerbenGillCharlotteGroffElizabeth R.HibdonJulieHinkleJoshua C.JohnsonShane D.LawtonBrianLumCynthiaRatcliffeJerry H.RengertGeorgeTaniguchiTravisYangSue-Ming. 2016. Place Matters: Criminology for the Twenty-First Century. New York: Cambridge University Press.
68.
WeisburdDavidGroffElizabeth R.YangSue-Ming. 2012. The Criminology of Place: Street Segments and Our Understanding of the Crime Problem. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
69.
WeisburdDavidGroffElizabeth R.YangSue-Ming. 2014. “Understanding and Controlling Hot Spots of Crime: The Importance of Formal and Informal Social Controls.” Prevention Science15:31–43.
70.
WeisburdDavidMorrisNancy A.GroffElizabeth R.. 2009. “Hot Spots of Juvenile Crime: A Longitudinal Study of Arrest Incidents at Street Segments in Seattle, Washington.” Journal of Quantitative Criminology25:443–67.
71.
WeisburdDavidShayMaorAmramShaiZamirRoie. 2017. “The Relationship between Social Disorganization and Crime at the Micro Geographic Level: Findings from Tel Aviv-Yafo Using Israeli Census Data.” Pp. 97-119 in Unraveling the Crime-Place Connection: New Directions in Theory and Policy, Advances in Criminological Theory, Vol. 22, edited by WeisburdDavidEckJohn ELondon: Routledge.
72.
WilcoxPamelaEckJohn E.. 2011. “Criminology of the Unpopular: Implications for Policy Aimed at Payday Lending Facilities.” Criminology & Public Policy10:473–82.
73.
WilcoxPamelaGialopsosBrooke MillerLandKenneth C.. 2013. “Multilevel Criminal Opportunity.” Pp. 579-601 in The Oxford Handbook of Criminological Theory, edited by CullenFrancis T.WilcoxPamela. New York: Oxford University Press.
74.
WilcoxPamelaLandKenneth C.HuntScott A.. 2003. Criminal Circumstance: A Dynamic, Multi-Contextual Criminal Opportunity Theory. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
75.
WilcoxPamelaMadensenTamara D.TillyerMarie Skubak. 2007. “Guardianship in Context: Implications for Burglary Victimization Risk and Prevention.” Criminology45:771–803.
76.
WilcoxPamelaQuisenberryNeilCabreraDebra T.JonesShayne. 2004. “Busy Places and Broken Windows? Toward Defining the Role of Physical Structure and Process in Community Crime Models.” The Sociological Quarterly45:185–207.
77.
WilcoxPamelaTillyerMarie Skubak. 2018. “Place and Neighborhood Contexts.” Pp. 121-142 in Unraveling the Crime-Place Connection: New Directions in Theory and Policy, Advances in Criminological Theory, Vol. 22, edited by WeisburdDavidEckJohn E.. Routledge.
78.
Wilcox RountreePamelaLandKenneth C.MietheTerance D.. 1994. “Macro-micro Integration in the Study of Victimization: A Hierarchical Logistic Model Analysis across Seattle Neighborhoods.” Criminology32:387–414.
79.
YuSung-suk VioletMaxfieldMichael G.. 2014. “Ordinary Business: Impacts on Commercial and Residential Burglary.” The British Journal of Criminology54:298–320.
