The environment has now become firmly established as an item on the agenda of peace research. However, perceptions of the interrelationship between peace and environmental issues differ widely. In order to prepare the way for systematic analysis of this interrelationship, four linkages are identified here: causal, instrumental, definitional and normative. Since environmental issues are not only to be treated as non-military threats to the security of societies, but can also work to promote cooperation and peace-building, the causal, instrumental and definitional linkages are sub-categorized as having positive and negative aspects. Environmental security is identified as a normative linkage designed to cope with the negative aspects of the other linkages. Whether this will lead to a militarization of environmental politics, or rather help to demilitarize security thinking remains an open question. The answer will depend very much on the positive aspects of the causal and instrumental linkages. Up to now, ecological cooperation has to be seen as a dependent variable reflecting the state of overall international relations. However, there are some indications that environmental cooperation may develop an Eigendynamik of its own and become an independent variable with influence of its own on world politics.
Bächler, Günther , 1990. `Okologische Sicherheit und Konflikt', Dialog, vol. 18, nos. 1-2, pp. 231-261.
3.
Barnaby, Frank , 1976. `Environmental Warfare', Bulletin of the Atomic Scientist, vol. 32, no. 5, May, pp. 36-43.
4.
Brock-Utne, Birgit , 1988. `Formal Education as a Force in Shaping Cultural Norms Relating to War and the Environment', pp. 83-100 in Arthur H. Westing, ed., Cultural Norms, War and the Environment. Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press.
5.
Brown, Lester R. , 1977. Redefining National Security. Washington, DC: Worldwatch Institute, Paper no. 14.
6.
Brundtland, Gro Harlem (chairperson)et al. , 1987. Our Common Future. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
7.
Brzoska, Michael , 1983. `The Military Related External Debt of Third World Countries', Journal of Peace Research. vol. 13, no. 3, September pp. 271-277.
8.
Colinvaux, P. , 1980. Fates of Nations: A Biological Theory of History. New York: Simon & Schuster.
9.
Deger, Saadet & Ron Smith, 1985. `Military Expenditure and Development: The Economic Linkages', IDS Bulletin (Brighton), vol. 16, no. 4, pp. 49-57.
10.
Deudney, Daniel , 1990. `The Case Against Linking Environmental Degradation and National Security', Millennium: Journal of International Studies, vol. 19, no. 3, Winter, pp. 461-476.
11.
Environmental Security, 1989. A Report Contributing to the Concept of Comprehensive International Security from a Conference in Moscow, 28 November-1 December 1988, co-sponsored by the USSR Academy of Sciences (Moscow), the International Peace Research Institute (Oslo), the United Nations Environmental Programme (Nairobi) and the Ecoforum for Peace (Sofia). Oslo/Nairobi.
12.
Falk, Richard A. , 1973. `Environmental Warfare and Ecocide', Bulletin of Peace Proposals, vol. 4, no. 4, pp. 1-17.
13.
Falk, Richard A. , 1984. `Environmental Disruption by Military Means and International Law', pp. 33-52 in Arthur H. Westing, ed., Environmental Warfare. London/Philadelphia, PA: Taylor & Francis.
14.
Falkenmark, Malin , 1986. `Fresh Waters as a Factor in Strategic Policy and Action', pp. 85-113 in Arthur H. Westing, ed., Global Resources and International Conflict. Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press.
15.
Finger, Mathias , 1990. Can Peace Research and Ecology be Linked? An Epistemological Approach. Paper presented to the Thirteenth General Conference of the International Peace Research Association, Groningen, 3-7 July.
16.
Goldblat, Jozef , 1978. `Environmental Weapons', in World Armaments and Disarmament. SIPRI Year-book 1978. London: Taylor & Francis.
17.
Herrera, Amilcar O. & Hugo D. Scolniket al., 1977. Grenzen des Elends. Das Bariloche-Modell. Frankfurt: Fischer.
18.
Holst, Johan J. , 1989. `Security and the Environment: A Preliminary Exploration', Bulletin of Peace Proposals, vol. 20, no. 2, June, pp. 123-129.
19.
Huber, Wolfgang , 1987. ` “Nur wer die Schöpfung liebt, kann sie retten” Naturzerstörung und Schöpfungsglaube', pp. 83-100 in Gerhard Rau, Adolf M. Ritter & Hermann Timm, eds, Frieden in der Schöpfung. Gütersloh: Mohn.
20.
Jänicke, Martin , 1979. Wie das Industriesystem von seinen Miβständen profitiert. Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag.
Leroy, Marcel , 1986. `Human Population as a Factor in Strategic Policy and Action', pp. 159-182 in Arthur H. Westing, ed., Global Resources and International Conflict. Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press.
23.
Lipschutz, Ronnie D. & John P. Holdren, 1990. `Crossing Borders: Resource Flows, the Global Environmental, and International Security', Bulletin of Peace Proposals, vol. 21, no. 2, June, pp. 121-133.
24.
List, Martin , 1990. `Cleaning up the Baltic: A Case Study in East-West Environmental Cooperation', pp. 90-116 in Volker Rittberger, ed., International Regimes in East-West Politics. London: Pinter.
25.
Lodgaard, Sverre , 1990. Environmental Conflict Resolution. Paper delivered at the UNEP meeting on `Environmental Conflict Resolution', Nairobi: UNEP, 30 March.
26.
Looney, Robert E. & Peter C. Frederiksen, 1986. `Defense Expenditures, External Public Debt and Growth in Developing Countries', Journal of Peace Research, vol. 23, no. 4, December, pp. 329-338.
27.
Luard, Evan , 1986. War in International Society. London: Tauris.
28.
Luard, Evan , 1988. The Blunted Sword. The Erosion of Military Power in Modern World Politics, London: Tauris.
29.
Mayer-Tasch, Peter C. , 1987. Die verseuchte Landkarte. Munich: Beck.
30.
Meyer-Abich, Klaus Michael , 1984. Wege zum Frieden mit der Natur. Praktische Philosophie für die Umweltpolitik. Munich: Piper.
31.
Meyer-Abich , Klaus Michael, 1990. `Im Treibhaus der Konflikte. Politische Krisen durch die Klimaänderung', Bild der Wissenschaft, vol. 27, no. 1, pp. 66-70.
32.
Mische, Pat , 1989. `Ecological Security in an Interdependent World', Breakthrough, vol. 11, no. 4/vol. 12, no. 1, Summer/Fall, pp. 7-17.
33.
Molvaer, Reidulf K. , 1990. `Environmental Cooperation in the Horn of Africa. A UNEP Perspective', Bulletin of Peace Proposals, vol. 21, no. 2, pp. 135-142.
34.
Moreau de Jonnès, Alexandre , 1825. Premier memoire en réponse à la question... quels sont les changements que peut occasionnier le déboisement de forrèt.... etc., Brussels.
35.
Müller, Harald, 1987. Security and the Environment: Report on the International Workshop on Security and the Environment, Royal Norwegian Ministry of Defence in support of the World Commission on Environment and Development, pp. 20-41.
36.
Müller, Harald , 1989. `Internationale Ressourcen- und Umwelt problematik', pp. 324-349 in Manfred Knapp & Gert Krell, eds, Einführung in die Internationale Politik. Munich/Vienna: Oldenbourg.
37.
Müller, Harald , 1990. Umwelt und Konflikt. Frankfurt: Peace Research Institute Frankfurt. 30-30 pp.
38.
Mueller, John , 1989. Retreat from Doomsday. The Obsolescence of Major War. New York: Basic Books.
39.
Myers, Norman , 1985. `Critical Link between the Environment, Natural Resources, and War', pp. 47-53 in A. S. Kelly, ed., Second Biennial Conference on the Fate of the Earth. San Francisco.
40.
Myers, Norman , 1986. `The Environmental Dimension to Security Issues', The Environmentalist, vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 251-257.
41.
North, Robert C. , 1984. `Integrating the Perspectives: From Population to Conflict and War', pp. 195-215 in Nazli Choucri, ed., Multidisciplinary Perspectives on Population and Conflict. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press.
42.
Palme, Olof (Chairman)et al. , 1982. Common Security. London: Pan.
43.
Renner, Michael , 1989. National Security: The Economic and Environmental Dimension. Washington: Worldwatch Paper 89.
44.
Rittberger, Volker , ed., 1990. International Regimes in East-West Politics. London: Pinter.
45.
Schrijver, Nico , 1989. `International Organization for Environmental Security?', Bulletin of Peace Proposals, vol. 20, no. 2, pp. 115-122.
46.
Siebert, Horst , 1990. Die vergeudete Umwelt. Frankfurt: Fischer.
47.
Stepanek, Brigitte , 1990. `Okologieproblematik als Aufgabe der Friedenspolitik', pp. 83-90 in Dieter Senghaas & Karlheinz Koppe, eds, Friedensforschung in Deutschland. Bonn: Arbeitsstelle für Friedensforschung.
48.
Thorsell, Jim (James) , ed., 1990a. Parks on the Borderline: Experience in Transfrontier Conservation. Geneva: International Union for the Conservation of Nature.
49.
Thorsell, James , 1990b. `Through Hot and Cold Wars, Parks Endure', Natural History, vol. 99, no. 6, June, pp. 56-58.
50.
Timoschenko, Alexander S. , 1989. `International Environmental Law and the Concept of Ecological Security', Breakthrough, vol. 10, no. 4, Summer/Fall, pp. 22-24.
51.
Ullmann, Richard H. , 1983. `Redefining Security', International Security, vol. 8, no. 1, Summer, pp. 129-153.
52.
Westing, Arthur H. , 1976. Ecological Consequences of the Second Indochina War. Stockholm: SIPRI.
53.
Westing, Arthur H. , ed. 1984. Environmental Warfare: A Technical, Legal and Policy Appraisal. London/Philadelphia, PA: Taylor & Francis.
54.
Westing, Arthur H. , ed. 1986. Global Resources and International Conflict. Environmental Factors in Strategic Policy and Action. Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press.
55.
Westing, Arthur H. , 1988. `The Military Sector vis-à-vis the Environment', Journal of Peace Research, vol. 25, no. 3, December, pp. 257-264.
