The service encounter frequently is the service from the customer's point of view. Using the critical incident method, the authors collected 700 incidents from customers of airlines, hotels, and restaurants. The incidents were categorized to isolate the particular events and related behaviors of contact employees that cause customers to distinguish very satisfactory service encounters from very dissatisfactory ones. Key implications for managers and researchers are highlighted.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
AlbrechtKarl, and ZemkeRon (1985), Service America.Homewood, IL: Dow Jones–Irwin.
2.
AnderssonBengt-Erik, and NilssonStig Goran (1964), “Studies in the Reliability and Validity of the Critical Incident Technique,”Journal of Applied Psychology, 48 (6), 398–403.
3.
BelkRussell W. (1987), “Material Values in the Comics: A Content Analysis of Comic Books Featuring Themes of Wealth,”Journal of Consumer Research, 14 (June), 26–42.
4.
BitnerMary Jo (1990), “Evaluating Service Encounters: The Effects of Physical Surroundings and Employee Responses,”Journal of Marketing, forthcoming.
5.
BitnerMary Jo, NyquistJody D., and BoomsBernard H. (1985), “The Critical Incident as a Technique for Analyzing the Service Encounter,” in Services Marketing in a Changing Environment, BlochT. M., UpahG. D., and ZeithamlV. A., eds. Chicago: American Marketing Association, 48–51.
6.
BrownStephen W., and SwartzTeresa A. (1989), “Gap Analysis of Professional Service Quality,”Journal of Marketing, 53 (April), 92–8.
7.
ChaseRichard B. (1978), “Where Does the Customer Fit in a Service Operation?”Harvard Business Review, 56 (November/December), 137–42.
8.
CopasErnestine M. (1984), “Critical Requirements for Cooperating Teachers,”Journal of Teacher Education, 35 (6), 49–54.
9.
CotterellJohn L. (1982), “Student Experiences Following Entry Into Secondary School,”Educational Research, 24 (4), 296–302.
10.
CrosbyLawrence A., and StephensNancy J. (1987), “Effects of Relationship Marketing on Satisfaction, Retention and Prices in the Life Insurance Industry,”Journal of Marketing Research, 24 (November), 404–11.
11.
CzepielJohn, SolomonMichael R., and SurprenantCarol F. (1985), The Service Encounter.New York: Lexington Books.
12.
DayRalph L., and BodurMuzaffer (1978), “Consumer Response to Dissatisfaction With Services and Intangibles,” in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 5, Keith HuntH., ed. Ann Arbor, MI: Association for Consumer Research, 263–72.
13.
DwyerF. Robert, SchurrPaul H., and OhSejo (1987), “Developing Buyer-Seller Relationships,”Journal of Marketing, 51 (April), 11–27.
14.
FienbergS. E. (1980), The Analysis of Cross-Classified Categorical Data, 2nd ed. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
15.
FlanaganJohn C. (1954), “The Critical Incident Technique,”Psychological Bulletin, 51 (July), 327–57.
16.
FolkesValerie S., and KotsosBarbara (1986), “Buyers’ and Sellers’ Explanations for Product Failure: Who Done It?”Journal of Marketing, 50 (April), 74–80.
17.
FreemanDaniel H.Jr. (1987), Applied Categorical Data Analysis.New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc.
18.
HoganJoyce, HoganRobert, and BuschCatherine M. (1984), “How to Measure Service Orientation,”Journal of Applied Psychology, 69 (1), 167–73.
19.
HoughLeatta M. (1984), “Development and Evaluation of the ‘Accomplishment Record’ Method of Selecting and Promoting Professionals,”Journal of Applied Psychology, 69 (1), 135–46.
20.
HuntS. D. (1983), Marketing Theory: The Philosophy of Marketing Science.Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin, Inc.
21.
KassarjianHarold H. (1977), “Content Analysis in Consumer Research,”Journal of Consumer Research, 4 (June), 8–18.
22.
KassarjianHarold H. (1984), “Males and Females in the Funnies: A Content Analysis,” in Personal Values and Consumer Psychology, PittsRobert E.Jr., and WoodsideArch G., eds. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.
23.
KerlingerFred N. (1973), Foundations of Behavioral Research, 2nd ed. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.
24.
KoeppStephen (1987), “Pul-eeze! Will Somebody Help Me?”Time (February 2), 28–34.
25.
LathamGary, and SaariLise M. (1984), “Do People Do What They Say? Further Studies on the Situational Interview,”Journal of Applied Psychology, 69 (4), 569–73.
26.
LathamGary, SaariLise M., PursellElliott D., and CampionMichael A. (1980), “The Situational Interview,”Journal of Applied Psychology, 65 (4), 422–7.
27.
LeighThomas W., and RethansArno J. (1984), “A Script-Theoretic Analysis of Industrial Purchasing Behavior,”Journal of Marketing, 48 (Fall), 22–32.
28.
LovelockChristopher H. (1983), “Classifying Services to Gain Strategic Marketing Insights,”Journal of Marketing, 47 (Summer), 9–20.
29.
LovelockChristopher H. (1988), Managing Services: Marketing, Operations and Human Resources.Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
30.
NyquistJody D., BitnerMary Jo, and BoomsBernard H. (1985), “Identifying Communication Difficulties in the Service Encounter: A Critical Incidents Approach,” in The Service Encounter, CzepielJohn, SolomonMichael, and SurprenantCarol, eds. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 195–212.
31.
NyquistJody D., and BoomsBernard H. (1987), “Measuring Services Value From the Consumer Perspective,” in Add Value to Your Service, SurprenantCarol, ed. Chicago: American Marketing Association, 13–16.
32.
ParasuramanA., ZeithamlValarie A., and BerryLeonard L. (1985), “A Conceptual Model of Service Quality and Its Implications for Further Research,”Journal of Marketing, 49 (Fall), 41–50.
33.
ParasuramanA., ZeithamlValarie A., and BerryLeonard L. (1988), “SERVQUAL: A Multiple-Item Scale for Measuring Consumer Perceptions of Service Quality,”Journal of Retailing, 64 (1), 12–40.
34.
PollayRichard W. (1985), “The Subsiding Sizzle: A Descriptive History of Print Advertising, 1900–1980,”Journal of Marketing, 49 (Summer), 24–37.
35.
PursellElliott D., CampionMichael A., and GaylordSarah A. (1980), “Structured Interviewing: Avoiding Selection Problems,”Personnel Journal (November), 907–12.
36.
QuelchJohn A., and AshStephen B. (1981), “Consumer Satisfaction With Professional Services,” in Marketing of Services, DonnellyJames H., and GeorgeWilliam R., eds. Chicago: American Marketing Association, 82–5.
37.
RonanWilliam W., and LathanGary P. (1974), “The Reliability and Validity of the Critical Incident Technique: A Closer Look,”Studies in Personnel Psychology, 6 (1), 53–64.
38.
SchneiderBenjamin, and BowenDavid E. (1985), “Employee and Customer Perceptions of Services in Banks: Replication and Extension,”Journal of Applied Psychology, 70 (3), 423–33.
39.
SchneiderBenjamin, and SchecterDaniel (1988), “The Development of a Personnel System for Service Jobs,” presented at Symposium on Quality in Services, University of Karlstad, Karlstad, Sweden; in Quality in Services, BrownStephen W., and GummessonEvert, eds. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books (forthcoming).
40.
ShostackG. Lynn (1985), “Planning the Service Encounter,” in The Service Encounter, CzepielJohn A., SolomonMichael R., and SurprenantCarol F., eds. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 243–54.
41.
SolomonMichael R., SurprenantCarol, CzepielJohn A., and GutmanEvelyn G. (1985), “A Role Theory Perspective on Dyadic Interactions: The Service Encounter,”Journal of Marketing, 49 (Winter), 99–111.
42.
SpiggleSusan (1986), “Measuring Social Values: A Content Analysis of Sunday Comics and Underground Comix,”Journal of Consumer Research, 13 (June), 100–13.
43.
SurprenantCarol F., and SolomonMichael R. (1987), “Predictability and Personalization in the Service Encounter,”Journal of Marketing, 51 (April), 73–80.
44.
VineyLinda L. (1983), “The Assessment of Psychological States Through Content Analysis of Verbal Communications,”Psychological Bulletin, 94 (3), 542–63.
45.
WeberRobert Philip (1985), Basic Content Analysis, Sage University Paper Series on Quantitative Applications in the Social Sciences, 07–049. Beverly Hills and London: Sage Publications, Inc.
46.
WestbrookRobert A. (1981), “Sources of Consumer Satisfaction With Retail Outlets,”Journal of Retailing, 57 (Fall), 68–85.
47.
WhiteFrank M., and LockeEdwin A. (1981), “Perceived Determinants of High and Low Productivity in Three Occupational Groups: A Critical Incident Study,”Journal of Management Studies, 18 (4), 375–87.
48.
ZimmerMary R., and GoldenLinda L. (1988), “Impressions of Retail Stores: A Content Analysis of Consumer Images,”Journal of Retailing, 64 (Fall), 265–94.