This article proposes an integrated product classification scheme. It is argued that, in view of the 1985 definition of marketing, one classification for all products—goods, services, and ideas—is sufficient. This classification adds “preference” products to the conventional convenience, shopping, and specialty categories. These categories are defined in terms of the effort and risk dimensions of price—as perceived by both organizational and ultimate consumers.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
AhtolaOllie T. (1985), “The Conceptual Meaning of Marketing Services,” in Services Marketing in a Changing Environment, BlochT. M., UpahG. D., and ZeithamlV. A., eds., Chicago: American Marketing Association, 91–93.
ArndtJohan, and GronmoSigmund (1977), “The Time Dimension of Shopping Behavior: Some Empirical Findings,” in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 4, PerreaultWilliam D.Jr., ed., Ann Arbor: Association for Consumer Research, 230–235.
4.
AspinwallLeo V. (1961), “The Marketing Characteristics of Goods,” in Four Marketing Theories, Boulder, CO: University of Colorado, 16–21.
5.
AssaelHenry (1984), Consumer Behavior and Marketing Action, Boston, MA: Kent.
6.
BagozziRichard P. (1974), “Marketing as an Organized Behavior System of Exchange,”Journal of Marketing, 38 (October), 77–81.
7.
BagozziRichard P. (1975), “Marketing as Exchange,”Journal of Marketing, 39 (October), 32–39.
8.
BagozziRichard P. (1978), “Marketing as Exchange: A Theory of Transactions in the Marketplace,”American Behavioral Scientist, 21 (March-April), 535–556.
9.
BauerRaymond A. (1960), “Consumer Behavior as Risk Taking,” in Dynamic Marketing for a Changing World, HancockR. S., ed., Chicago: American Marketing Association, 389–398.
10.
BeckerGary S. (1965), “A Theory of the Allocation of Time,”The Economic Journal, 75 (September), 493–517.
11.
BenderWesley C. (1964), “Consumer Purchase-Costs—Do Retailers Recognize Them?,”Journal of Retailing, 40 (Spring), 1–8 ff.
12.
BerlyneD. E. (1957), “Conflict and Choice Time,”British Journal of Psychology, 48 (May), Part 2, 106–118.
13.
BerryLeonard L. (1979), “The Time Buying Consumer,”Journal of Retailing, 55 (Winter), 58–69.
14.
BerryLeonard L. (1980), “Services Marketing Is Different,”Business, 30 (May-June), 24–29.
15.
BettmanJames R. (1973), “Perceived Risk and Its Components: A Model and Empirical Test,”Journal of Marketing Research, 10 (May), 184–190.
16.
BillonS. A., and RobinsonWilliam D. (1970), “Price-Cost Relationships: Industrial Chemicals,” in Broadening the Concept of Marketing, Chicago: American Marketing Association, 42.
17.
BlackwellRoger D., and Wayne TalarzykW. (1983), “Lifestyle Retailing: Competitive Strategies for the 1980s,”Journal of Retailing, 59 (Winter), 7–27.
18.
BlochPeter H., and RichinsMarsha L. (1983), “A Theoretical Model for the Study of Product Importance Perceptions,”Journal of Marketing, 47 (Summer), 69–81.
19.
BourneFrederick S. (1956), Group Influence in Marketing and Public Relations, Ann Arbor: Foundation for Research on Human Behavior, 1–8.
20.
BucklinLouis (1963), “Retail Strategy and the Classification of Consumer Goods,”Journal of Marketing, 27 (January), 51–56.
21.
BucklinLouis (1976), “Retrospective Comment on Retail Strategy and the Classification of Consumer Goods,” in The Great Writings in Marketing, ThompsonH. A., ed., Plymouth, MI: The Commerce Press, 382–388.
22.
CherlowJay (1981), “Measuring Values of Travel Time Savings,”Journal of Consumer Research, 7 (March), 360–371.
23.
“Clorox: An R&D Game Plan Is Brightening Its Profit Picture” (1984), Business Week, (April 23), 113.
24.
CopelandMelvin T. (1923), “The Relation of Consumers’ Buying Habits to Marketing Methods, “Harvard Business Review, 1 (April), 282–289.
25.
CopelandMelvin T. (1924), Principles of Merchandising, Chicago: A. W. Shaw.
26.
CottleThomas J. (1976), Perceiving Time: A Psychological Investigation with Men and Women, New York: Wiley.
27.
CromptonJohn L., and LambCharles W.Jr. (1986), Marketing Government and Social Services, New York: Wiley.
28.
CunninghamScott M. (1967), “The Major Dimensions of Perceived Risk,” in Risk Taking and Information Handling in Consumer Behavior, DonaldF. Cox, ed., Boston: Graduate School of Business Administration, Harvard University, 82–108.
29.
DavisDuane L., GuiltinanJoseph P., and JonesWesley H. (1979), “Service Characteristics, Consumer Search, and the Classification of Retail Services,”Journal of Retailing, 55 (Fall), 3–23.
30.
DizardJohn W. (1983), “The Explosion of International Barter,”Fortune, 110 (February 7), 88–95.
31.
DommermuthWilliam P. (1965), “The Shopping Matrix and Marketing Strategy,”Journal of Marketing Research, 41 (May), 128–132.
32.
DownsA. (1961), “A Theory of Consumer Efficiency,”Journal of Retailing, 37 (Spring), 6–12.
33.
EcklundChristopher S. (1985), “Will a Tomato by Any Other Name Taste Better?,”Business Week, (September 30), 105.
34.
EmeryFred (1970), “Some Psychological Aspects of Price,” in Pricing Strategy, TaylorBernard, and WillsGordon, eds., Princeton: Brandon/Systems Press, 112–131.
35.
EngelJames F., BlackwellRoger D., and MiniardPaul M. (1986), Consumer Behavior, 5th ed., Hinsdale, IL: Dryden.
36.
EnisBen M., and RoeringKenneth J. (1980), “Product Classification Taxonomies: Synthesis and Consumer Implications,” in Theoretical Developments in Marketing, LambC. W.Jr., and DunneP. M., eds., Chicago: American Marketing Association, 186–189.
37.
FeldmanLaurence P., and HornikJacob (1981), “The Use of Time: An Integrated Conceptual Model,”Journal of Consumer Research, 7 (March), 407–419.
38.
FelsonMarcus (1979), “How Should Social Indicators be Collected, Organized, and Modeled?,”Contemporary Sociology, 8 (January), 40–41.
39.
FernEdward F., and BrownJames R. (1984), “The Industrial/Consumer Marketing Dichotomy: A Case of Insufficient Justification,”Journal of Marketing, 48 (Spring) 68–77.
40.
FineSeymour H. (1981a), “Beyond Money: The Concept of Social Price,” in Marketing of Services, DonnellyJ. H., and GeorgeW. R., eds., Chicago: American Marketing Association, 113–116.
41.
FineSeymour H. (1981b), The Marketing of Ideas and Social Causes, New York: Praeger.
42.
“Firm Adopts Package Goods Positioning in Marketing Its Line of Garden Products” (1985), Marketing News, 19 (March 1), 12.
43.
FisherAnne B. (1985), “Coke's Brand-Loyalty Lesson,”Fortune, 112 (August 5), 44–46.
44.
FoxKaren F. A. (1980), “Time as a Component of Price in Social Marketing,” in Marketing in the 1980s, BagozziR. P., eds., Chicago: American Marketing Association, 464–467.
45.
GerstnerEitan (1985), “Do Higher Prices Signal Higher Quality?,”Journal of Marketing Research, 22 (May), 209–215.
46.
GillyMary C., and DeanDebra L. (1985), “A Market-Oriented Taxonomy of Public Services: Implications for Marketing Management,” in Services Marketing in a Changing Environment, BlochT. M., UpahG. D., and ZeithamlV. A., eds., Chicago: American Marketing Association, 94–97.
47.
GouldJohn P., and SenSubrata K. (1984), “Pricing Strategy,”Journal of Business, 57 (January), Part 2.
48.
GrahamRobert J. (1981), “The Role of Perception of Time in Consumer Research,”Journal of Consumer Research, 7 (March), 335–342.
49.
GronauReuben (1975), “Economic Approach to Value of Time and Transportation Choice,” in Value of Travel Time, ThomasE. Lisco, ed., Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences, Transportation Research Board, 12–18.
50.
GuiltinanJoseph P. (1976), “Risk-Aversive Pricing Policies: Problems and Alternatives,”Journal of Marketing, 40 (January), 10–15.
51.
GusemanDennis S. (1981), “Risk Perception and Risk Reduction in Consumer Services,” in Marketing of Services, DonnellyJ. H., and GeorgeW. R., eds., Chicago: American Marketing Association, 200–204.
HallTrish (1985), “Brand-Name Produce Hits Stores—But Will It Really Taste Better?,”The Wall Street Journal, 65 (September 23), 31.
54.
HattenMary Louise (1982), “Don't Get Caught with Your Prices Down: Pricing in Inflationary Times,”Business Horizons, 25 (March-April), 23–28.
55.
HawesDouglass K. (1979), “Time and Behavior,” in Conceptual and Theoretical Developments in Marketing, FerrellO. C., BrownS. W., and LambC. W.Jr., eds., Chicago: American Marketing Association, 281–295.
56.
HawesDouglass K. (1980), “The Time Variable in Models of Consumer Behavior,” in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 7, JerryC. Olson, ed., Ann Arbor: Association for Consumer Research, 442–447.
57.
HeathRobert L., and NelsonRichard Alan (1985), “Image and Issue Advertising: A Corporate and Public Policy Perspective,”Journal of Marketing, 49 (Spring), 58–68.
58.
HendrixPhilip E. (1980), “Subjective Elements in the Examination of Time Expenditures,” in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 7, JerryC. Olson, ed., Ann Arbor: Association for Consumer Research, 437–441.
59.
HendrixPhilip E., KinnearThomas C., and TaylorJames R. (1983), Consumers’ Time Expenditures: A Behavioral Model and Empirical Test, Cambridge, MA: Marketing Science Institute.
60.
HendrixPhilip E., and MartinClaude R.Jr. (1981), “Temporal Incongruency in Consumer Behavior,” in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 8, KentB. Monroe, ed., Ann Arbor: Association for Consumer Research, 182–186.
61.
HendrixPhilip E., and QuailsWilliam J. (1985), “Operationalizing Family-Level Constructs: Problems and Prospects,” in Marketing to the Changing Household: Management and Research Perspectives, RobertsM. L., and WortzelL. H., eds., Cambridge, MA: Ballinger, 53–65.
62.
HillRichard M., AlexanderRalph S., and CrossJames S. (1975), Industrial Marketing, 2nd ed., Homewood, IL: Irwin.
63.
HolbrookMorris B., and HowardJohn A. (1977), “Frequently Purchased Nondurable Goods and Services,” in Selected Aspects of Consumer Behavior, FerberRobert, ed., Washington, DC: National Science Foundation, 189–222.
64.
HolmanRebecca H., and Dale WilsonR. (1980), “The Availability of Discretionary Time: Influences on Interactive Patterns of Consumer Shopping Behavior,” in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 7, JerryC. Olson, ed., Ann Arbor: Association for Consumer Research, 431–436.
65.
HoltonRichard M. (1958), “The Distinction between Convenience Goods, Shopping Goods, and Specialty Goods,”Journal of Marketing, 23 (July), 53–56.
66.
HornikJacob (1984), “Subjective vs. Objective Time Measures: A Note on the Perception of Time in Consumer Behavior,”Journal of Consumer Research, 11 (June), 615–618.
67.
HortonRaymond L. (1979), “Some Relationships between Personality and Consumer Decision Making,”Journal of Marketing Research, 16 (May), 233–246.
68.
HuntShelby D. (1976), “The Nature and Scope of Marketing,”Journal of Marketing, 40 (July), 17–28.
69.
HuttMichael D., and SpehThomas W. (1985), Industrial Marketing Management: A Strategic View of Business Markets, Hinsdale, IL: Dryden.
70.
JacobyJacob, and KaplanLeon B. (1972), “The Components of Perceived Risk,” in Proceedings of the 3rd Annual Conference of the Association for Consumer Research, VenkatesanM., ed., 382–393.
71.
JacobyJacob, and OlsonJerry C. (1977), “Consumer Response to Price: An Attitudinal Information Processing Perspective,” in Moving Ahead with Attitude Research, WindY., and GreenbergM., eds., Chicago: American Marketing Association, 73–86.
72.
JacobyJacob, SzybilloGeorge J., and BerningCarol Kohn (1976), “Time and Consumer Behavior: An Interdisciplinary Overview,”Journal of Consumer Research, 2 (March), 320–339.
73.
JamiesonWilliam (1985), Personal communication with the authors.
74.
JolsonMarvin A., and ProiaS. L. (1976), “Classification of Consumer Goods—A Subjective Measure?,” in Marketing: 1776–1976 and Beyond, KennethL. Bernhardt, ed., Chicago: American Marketing Association, 71–75.
75.
KaikatiJack D. (1982), “Marketing without Exchange of Money,”Harvard Business Review, 60 (November-December), 72–74.
76.
KaishStanley (1967), “Cognitive Dissonance and the Classification of Consumer Goods,”Journal of Marketing, 31 (October), 28–31.
77.
KamenJoseph, and TomanRobert J. (1970), “Psychophysics of Prices,”Journal of Marketing Research, 41 (February), 27–35.
78.
KaplanLeon B., SzybilloGeorge J., and JacobyJacob (1974), “Components of Perceived Risk in Product Purchase: A Cross-Validation,”Journal of Applied Psychology, 59 (no. 3), 287–291.
79.
KleimenhagenArno K. (1966–67), “Shopping, Specialty, or Convenience Goods?,”Journal of Retailing, 42 (Winter), 32–39 ff.
80.
KotlerPhilip (1972a), “A Generic Concept of Marketing,”Journal of Marketing, 36 (April), 46–54.
KotlerPhilip, and LevySidney (1969), “Broadening the Concept of Marketing,”Journal of Marketing, 33 (January), 10–15.
84.
KotlerPhilip, and ZaltmanGerald (1971), “Social Marketing: An Approach to Planned Social Change,”Journal of Marketing, 35 (July), 3–12.
85.
KrugmanHerbert E. (1965), “The Impact of Television Advertising: Learning without Involvement,”Public Opinion Quarterly, 29 (Fall), 349–356.
86.
LambertZarrell V. (1972), “Price and Choice Behavior,”Journal of Marketing Research, 9 (February), 35–40.
87.
LevittTheodore (1975), “Marketing Myopia,”Harvard Business Review, 53 (September-October), 28–44 ff.
88.
LevittTheodore (1980), “Marketing Success through Differentiation of Anything,”Harvard Business Review, 58 (January-February), 83–91.
89.
LocanderWilliam B., and HermannPeter W. (1979), “The Effect of Self-Confidence and Anxiety on Information Seeking in Consumer Risk Reduction,”Journal of Marketing Research, 16 (May), 268–274.
90.
LovelockChristopher H. (1979), “Theoretical Contributions from Services and Nonbusiness Marketing,” in Conceptual and Theoretical Developments in Marketing, FerrellO. C., BrownS. W., and LambC. W.Jr., eds., Chicago: American Marketing Association, 147–165.
91.
LovelockChristopher H. (1980), “Toward a Classification of Services,” in Theoretical Developments in Marketing, LambC. W.Jr., and DunneP. M., eds., Chicago: American Marketing Association, 72–76.
92.
LovelockChristopher H. (1983), “Classifying Services to Gain Strategic Marketing Insights,”Journal of Marketing, 47 (Summer), 9–20.
93.
LovelockChristopher H. (1984), Services Marketing, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
94.
LovelockChristopher H., and WeinbergCharles B. (1984), Marketing for Public and Nonprofit Managers, New York: Wiley.
95.
LuckDavid J. (1959), “On the Nature of Specialty Goods,”Journal of Marketing, 24 (July), 61–64.
96.
MartinEverett G., and RicksThomas E. (1985), “Counter-trading Grows as Cash-Short Nations Seek Marketing Help,”The Wall Street Journal, 64 (March 13), 1ff.
97.
MayerMorris L., Barry MasonJ., and GeeMorris (1971), “A Reconceptualization of Store Classification as Related to Retail Strategy Formulation,”Journal of Retailing, 47 (Fall), 27–36.
98.
MiracleGordon E. (1965), “Product Characteristics and Marketing Strategy,”Journal of Marketing, 29 (January), 18–24.
99.
MonroeKent B. (1973), “Buyers’ Subjective Perceptions of Price,”Journal of Marketing Research, 10 (February), 70–80.
100.
MonroeKent B. (1977), “Objective and Subjective Contextual Influences on Price Perception,” in Consumer and Industrial Buying Behavior, WoodsideA. G., ShethJ. N., and BennettP. D., eds., New York: North-Holland, 287–296.
101.
MonroeKent B., Della BittaAlbert J., and DowneySusan L. (1977), “Contextual Influences on Subjective Price Perceptions,”Journal of Business Research, 5 (December), 277–291.
102.
MonroeKent B., and KrishnanR. (1984), “Effects of Price on Subjective Product Evaluations,” in Perceived Quality: How Consumers View Merchandise in Stores, JacobyJ., and OlsonJ., eds., Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 209–232.
103.
MonroeKent B., and PetroshiusSusan M. (1981), “Buyers’ Perceptions of Price: An Update of the Evidence,” in Perspectives in Consumer Behavior, 3rd ed., KassarjianH. H., and RobertsonT. S., eds., Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman, 43–55.
104.
MorrisBetsy (1985), “Rise in Health Claims in Food Ads Can Help—and Mislead—Shoppers,”The Wall Street Journal, 65 (April 2), 33.
105.
OlsonJerry C. (1977), “Price as an Informational Cue: Effects on Product Evaluations,” in Consumer and Industrial Buying Behavior, WoodsideA. G., ShethJ. N., and BennettP. D., eds., New York: North-Holland, 267–286.
106.
ParkC. Whan, AssaelHenry, and ChaiySeoil (1984), Mediating Roles of Trial and Learning Stage on the Outcomes of Consumer Involvement, Cambridge, MA: Marketing Science Institute, working paper.
107.
PerryM., and HammB. (1969), “Canonical Analysis of Relations between Socio-Economic Risk and Personal Influence in Purchase Decisions,”Journal of Marketing Research, 6 (February), 351–354.
108.
PeterJ. Paul, and TarpeyLawrence X.Sr. (1975), “A Comparative Analysis of Three Consumer Decision Strategies,”Journal of Consumer Research, 41 (June), 29–37.
109.
PetersTom, and AustinNancy (1985), A Passion for Excellence: The Leadership Difference, New York: Random House.
110.
PorterMichael E. (1980), Competitive Strategy: Techniques for Analyzing Industries and Competitors, New York: The Free Press.
111.
PorterMichael E. (1985), Competitive Advantage: Creating and Sustaining Superior Performance, New York: The Free Press.
112.
RamondC. K., and AssaelHenry (1974), “An Empirical Framework for Product Classification,” in Models and Buyer Behavior, JagdishN. Sheth, ed., Evanston, IL: Harper, 347–362.
113.
RaoVithala R. (1984), “Pricing Research in Marketing: The State of the Art,”Journal of Business, 57 (No. 1, Part 2), S39–S60.
114.
ReiszPeter (1979), “Price-Quality Correlations for Packaged Food Products,”Journal of Consumer Affairs, 13 (Winter), 236–247.
115.
ReiszPeter (1980), “A Major Price-Perceived Quality Study Reexamined,”Journal of Marketing Research, 17 (May), 259–262.
116.
RoseliusTed (1971), “Consumer Ranking of Risk Reduction Methods,”Journal of Marketing, 35 (January), 55–61.
117.
RothschildMichael L. (1975), “Involvement as a Determinant of Decision Making Styles,” in 1975 Combined Proceedings, MazzeE. M., ed., Chicago: American Marketing Association, 216–220.
118.
RothschildMichael L. (1979a), “Advertising Strategies for High and Low Involvement Situations,” in Attitude Research Plays for High Stakes, MaloneyJ., and SilvermanB., eds., Chicago: American Marketing Association, 74–93.
119.
RothschildMichael L. (1979b), “Marketing Communications in Nonbusiness Situations,”Journal of Marketing, 43 (Spring), 11–20.
120.
ScharyPhillip B. (1971), “Consumption and the Problem of Time,”Journal of Marketing, 35 (April), 50–55.
121.
SethiS. Prakash (1979), “Institutional/Image Advertising and Idea/Issue Advertising as Marketing Tools: Some Public Policy Issues,”Journal of Marketing, 43 (January), 68–78.
122.
SettleRobert B. (1980), “A Discussion of ‘Time’ Research,” in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 7, JerryC. Olson, ed., Ann Arbor: Association for Consumer Research, 448–450.
123.
ShapiroBenson (1973), “Marketing for Nonprofit Organizations,”Harvard Business Review, 51 (September-October), 123–32.
124.
ShapiroBenson (1977), Industrial Product Policy: Managing the Existing Product Line, Cambridge, MA: Marketing Science Institute.
125.
ShethJagdish N. (1973), “A Model of Industrial Buyer Behavior,”Journal of Marketing, 37 (October), 50–56.
126.
ShethJagdish N., and VenkatesanM. (1968), “Risk-Reduction Processes in Repetitive Consumer Behavior,”Journal of Marketing Research, 5 (August), 307–310.
127.
ShostackG. Lynn (1977), “Breaking Free from Product Marketing,”Journal of Marketing, 41 (April), 73–80.
128.
SilpakitPatriya, and FiskRaymond P. (1985), “‘Participatizing’ the Service Encounter: A Theoretical Framework,” in Services Marketing in a Changing Environment, BlochT. M., UpahG. D., and ZeithamlV. A., eds., Chicago: American Marketing Association, 117–121.
129.
SternLouis W., and El AnsaryAdel I. (1982), Marketing Channels, 2nd ed., Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
130.
VenkatesanM., and AndersonBeverlee B. (1985), “Time Budgets and Consumer Services,” in Services Marketing in a Changing Environment, BlochT. M., UpahG. D., and ZeithamlV. A., eds., Chicago: American Marketing Association, 52–55.
131.
VossJustin, and BlackwellRoger D. (1979), “The Role of Time Resources in Consumer Behavior,” in Conceptual and Theoretical Developments in Marketing, FerrellO. C., BrownS. W., and LambC. W.Jr., eds., Chicago: American Marketing Association, 296–311.
132.
WeigandRobert E. (1977), “International Trade without Money,”Harvard Business Review, 55 (November-December), 28–42 ff.
133.
ZeithamlValarie A. (1982), “The Acquisition, Meaning, and Use of Price Information by Consumers of Professional Services,” in Marketing Theory: Philosophy of Science Perspectives, BushR., and HuntS. D., eds., Chicago: American Marketing Association, 237–241.
134.
ZeithamlValarie A. (1984), “Issues in Conceptualizing and Measuring Consumer Response to Price,” in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 11, ThomasC. Kinnear, ed., Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, 612–616.
135.
ZeithamlValarie A., and GrahamKaren L. (1983), “The Accuracy of Reported Reference Prices for Professional Services,” in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 10, BagozziR. P., and TyboutA. M., eds., Ann Arbor: Association for Consumer Research, 607–611.
136.
ZeithamlValarie A., ParasuramanA., and BerryLeonard L. (1985), “Problems and Strategies in Services Marketing,”Journal of Marketing, 49 (Spring), 33–46.
