Social norms shape consumer behavior. However, it is not clear under what circumstances social norms are more versus less effective in doing so. This gap is addressed through an interdisciplinary meta-analysis examining the impact of social norms on consumer behavior across a wide array of contexts involving the purchase, consumption, use, and disposal of products and services, including socially approved (e.g., fruit consumption, donations) and disapproved (e.g., smoking, gambling) behaviors. Drawing from reactance theory and based on a cross-disciplinary data set of 250 effect sizes from research spanning 1978–2019 representing 112,478 respondents from 22 countries, the authors examine the effects of five categories of moderators of the effectiveness of social norms on consumer behavior: (1) target behavior characteristics, (2) communication factors, (3) consumer costs, (4) environmental factors, and (5) methodological characteristics. The findings suggest that while the effect of social norms on approved behavior is stable across time and cultures, their effect on disapproved behavior has grown over time and is stronger in survival and traditional cultures. Communications identifying specific organizations or close group members enhance compliance with social norms, as does the presence of monetary costs. The authors leverage their findings to offer managerial implications and a future research agenda for the field.
AartsHenkDijksterhuisAp (2003), “The Silence of the Library: Environment, Situational Norm, and Social Behavior,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84 (1), 18–28.
2.
AlbarracinDoloresJohnsonBlair T.FishbeinMartinMuellerleilePaige A. (2001), “Theories of Reasoned Action and Planned Behavior as Models of Condom Use: A Meta-Analysis,” Psychological Bulletin, 127 (1), 142–61.
3.
ÁlvarezGloriaKoteraYasuhiroPinaJuan (2020), World Index of Moral Freedom: WIMF 2020. Madrid: Foundation for the Advancement of Liberty.
4.
BallietDanielMulderLaetitia B.Van LangePaul A.M. (2011), “Reward, Punishment, and Cooperation: A Meta-Analysis,” Psychological Bulletin, 137 (4), 594–615.
5.
BanduraAlbert (1982), “Self-Efficacy Mechanism in Human Agency,” American Psychologist, 37 (2), 122–47.
6.
BaumeisterRoy F.LearyMark R. (1995), “The Need to Belong: Desire for Interpersonal Attachments as a Fundamental Human Motivation,” Psychological Bulletin, 117 (3), 497–529.
7.
BeardenWilliam O.EtzelMichael J. (1982), “Reference Group Influence on Product and Brand Purchase Decisions,” Journal of Consumer Research, 9 (2), 183–94.
8.
BellezzaSilviaGinoFrancescaKeinanAnat (2013), “The Red Sneakers Effect: Inferring Status and Competence from Signals of Nonconformity,” Journal of Consumer Research, 41 (1), 35–54.
9.
BensleyLillian SouthwickWuRui (1991), “The Role of Psychological Reactance in Drinking Following Alcohol Prevention Messages,” Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 21 (13), 1111–24.
10.
BergerJonahMilkmanKatherine L. (2012), “What Makes Online Content Viral?” Journal of Marketing Research, 49 (2), 192–205.
11.
BergquistMagnusNilssonAndreas (2016), “I Saw the Sign: Promoting Energy Conservation via Normative Prompts,” Journal of Environmental Psychology, 46, 23–31.
12.
BessarabovaElenaFinkEdward L.TurnerMonique (2013), “Reactance, Restoration, and Cognitive Structure: Comparative Statics,” Human Communication Research, 39 (3), 339–64.
13.
BhattacharyaChitrabhan B.RaoHayagreevaGlynnMary Ann (1995), “Understanding the Bond of Identification: An Investigation of Its Correlates Among Art Museum Members,” Journal of Marketing, 59 (4), 46–57.
14.
BijmoltTammo H.A.PietersRik G.M. (2001), “Meta-Analysis in Marketing when Studies Contain Multiple Measurements,” Marketing Letters, 12 (2), 157–69.
15.
BijmoltTammo H.A.van HeerdeHarald J.PietersRik G.M. (2005), “New Empirical Generalizations on the Determinants of Price Elasticity,” Journal of Marketing Research, 42 (2), 141–56.
16.
BondRodSmithPeter B. (1996), “Culture and Conformity: A Meta-Analysis of Studies Using Asch’s (1952b, 1956) Line Judgment Task,” Psychological Bulletin, 119 (1), 111–37.
17.
BorensteinMichaelHedgesLarry V.HigginsJulian P.T.RothsteinHannah R. (2009), Introduction to Meta-Analysis. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons.
18.
BrehmJack W. (1966), A Theory of Psychological Reactance. New York: Academic Press.
19.
BrehmJack W.ColeAnn H. (1966), “Effect of a Favor Which Reduces Freedom,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 3 (4), 420.
20.
BrehmSharon S.BrehmJack W. (1981), Psychological Reactance: A Theory of Freedom and Control. New York: Academic Press.
21.
BurchellKevinRettieRuthPatelKavita (2017), “Marketing Social Norms: Social Marketing and the ‘Social Norm Approach,’” Journal of Consumer Behavior, 12 (1), 1–9.
ChitturiRavindraRaghunathanRajagopalMahajanVijay (2008), “Delight by Design: The Role of Hedonic Versus Utilitarian Benefits,” Journal of Marketing, 72 (3), 48–63.
24.
CialdiniRobert B.GoldsteinNoah J. (2004), “Social Influence: Compliance and Conformity,” Annual Review of Psychology, 55, 591–621.
25.
CialdiniRobert B.RenoRaymond R.KallgrenCarl A. (1990), “A Focus Theory of Normative Conduct: Recycling the Concept of Norms to Reduce Littering in Public Places,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58 (6), 1015–26.
26.
CialdiniRobert B.TrostMelanie R. (1998), “Social Influence: Social Norms, Conformity and Compliance,” in Handbook of Social Psychology, GilbertDaniel T.FiskeSusan T.LindzeyGardner, eds. Boston: McGraw-Hill, 151–92.
27.
CleeMona A.WicklundRobert A. (1980), “Consumer Behavior and Psychological Reactance,” Journal of Consumer Research, 6 (4), 389–405.
28.
CohenJacob (1992), “A Power Primer,” Psychological Bulletin, 112 (1), 155–59.
29.
CrawfordSue E.S.OstromElinor (1995), “A Grammar of Institutions,” American Political Science Review, 89 (3), 582–600.
30.
CrockettMolly J. (2017), “Moral Outrage in the Digital Age,” Nature Human Behaviour, 1 (11), 769–71.
31.
DeciEdward L.KoestnerRichardRyanRichard M. (1999), “A Meta-Analytic Review of Experiments Examining the Effects of Extrinsic Rewards on Intrinsic Motivation,” Psychological Bulletin, 125 (6), 627–68.
32.
DzisiEmmanuel Komla JuniorDeiOscar Akunor (2020), “Adherence to Social Distancing and Wearing of Masks Within Public Transportation During the COVID 19 Pandemic,” Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives,7, 1–6.
33.
FehrErnstGächterSimon (2002), “Altruistic Punishment in Humans,” Nature, 415 (6868), 137–40.
34.
Feldman-SummersShirley (1977), “Implications of the Buck-Passing Phenomenon for Reactance Theory,” Journal of Personality, 45 (4), 543–53.
35.
FergusonChristopher J.BrannickMichael T. (2012), “Publication Bias in Psychological Science: Prevalence, Methods for Identifying and Controlling, and Implications for the Use of Meta-Analyses,” Psychological Methods, 17 (1), 120–28.
36.
FitzsimonsGavan J.LehmannDonald R. (2004), “Reactance to recommendations: When Unsolicited Advice Yields Contrary Responses,” Marketing Science, 23 (1), 82–94.
37.
GilovichThomasMedvecVictoria HustedSavitskyKenneth (2000), “The Spotlight Effect in Social Judgment: An Egocentric Bias in Estimates of the Salience of One’s Own Actions and Appearance,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78 (2), 211–22.
38.
GoldsteinNoah J.CialdiniRobert B.GriskeviciusVladas (2008), “A Room with a Viewpoint: Using Social Norms to Motivate Environmental Conservation in Hotels,” Journal of Consumer Research, 35 (3), 472–82.
39.
GreenRonald M. (1991), “When Is ‘Everyone’s Doing It’ a Moral Justification?” Business Ethics Quarterly, 1 (1), 75–93.
40.
GriskeviciusVladasGoldsteinNoah J.MortensenChad R.CialdiniRobert B.KenrickDouglas T. (2006), “Going Along Versus Going Alone: When Fundamental Motives Facilitate Strategic (Non) Conformity,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91 (2), 281–94.
41.
GriskeviciusVladasKenrickDouglas T. (2013), “Fundamental Motives: How Evolutionary Needs Influence Consumer Behavior,” Journal of Consumer Psychology, 23 (3), 372–86.
42.
GriskeviciusVladasTyburJoshua M.Van den BerghBram (2010), “Going Green to Be Seen: Status, Reputation, and Conspicuous Conservation,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98 (3), 392–404.
43.
HechterMichaelOppKarl-Dieter, eds. (2005), Social Norms. New York: Russell Sage.
44.
HedgesLarry V.PigottTherese D. (2001), “The Power of Statistical Tests in Meta-Analysis,” Psychological Methods, 6 (3), 203–17.
45.
Hennig-ThurauThorstenMalthouseEdward C.FriegeChristianGenslerSonjaLobschatLaraRangaswamyArvind, et al. (2010), “The Impact of New Media on Customer Relationships,” Journal of Service Research, 13 (3), 311–30.
46.
HenrichJosephBoydRobert (2001), “Why People Punish Defectors: Weak Conformist Transmission Can Stabilize Costly Enforcement of Norms in Cooperative Dilemmas,” Journal of Theoretical Biology, 208 (1), 79–89.
47.
HenrichJosephEnsmingerJeanMcElreathRichardBarrAbigailBarrettClarkBolyanatzAlexander, et al. (2010), “Markets, Religion, Community Size, and the Evolution of Fairness and Punishment,” Science, 327 (5972), 1480–84.
48.
HermanC. PeterRothDeborah A.PolivyJanet (2003), “Effects of the Presence of Others on Food Intake: A Normative Interpretation,” Psychological Bulletin, 129 (6), 873–86.
49.
HerrmannBenediktThöniChristianGächterSimon (2008), “Antisocial Punishment Across Societies,” Science, 319 (5868), 1362–67.
50.
HofstedeGeert (2001), Culture’s Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions and Organizations Across Nations. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.
51.
HomburgChristianWiesekeJanKuehnlChristina (2010), “Social Influence on Salespeople’s Adoption of Sales Technology: A Multilevel Analysis,” Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 38 (2), 159–68.
52.
InglehartRonaldBakerWayne E. (2000), “Modernization, Cultural Change, and the Persistence of Traditional Values,” American Sociological Review, 65 (1), 19–51.
53.
InglehartRobertHaerpferC.MorenoAlejandroWelzelChrisKizilovaKseniyaDiez-MedranoJaime, et al. (2014), World Values Survey: All Rounds-Country-Pooled Datafile Version. Madrid: JD Systems Institute, http://www.worldvaluessurvey.org/WVSDocumentationWVL.jsp.
54.
IyengarSheena S.LepperMark R. (1999), “Rethinking the Value of Choice: A Cultural Perspective on Intrinsic Motivation,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76 (3), 349–66.
55.
KährAndreaNyffeneggerBettinaKrohmerHarleyHoyerWayne D. (2016), “When Hostile Consumers Wreak Havoc on Your Brand: The Phenomenon of Consumer Brand Sabotage,” Journal of Marketing, 80 (3), 25–41.
56.
KeizerKeesLindenbergSiegwartStegLinda (2008), “The Spreading of Disorder,” Science, 322 (5908), 1681–85.
57.
KellerPunam AnandLehmannDonald R. (2008), “Designing Effective Health Communications: A Meta-Analysis,” Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, 27 (2), 117–30.
58.
KivetzRan (2005), “Promotion Reactance: The Role of Effort-Reward Congruity,” Journal of Consumer Research, 31 (4), 725–36.
59.
KronrodAnnGrinsteinAmirWathieuLuc (2012), “Go Green! Should Environmental Messages Be So Assertive?” Journal of Marketing, 76 (1), 95–102.
60.
LambTheodore A.AlsikafiMajeed (1980), “Conformity in the Asch Experiment: Inner-Other Directedness and the Defiant Subject,” Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 8 (1), 13–16.
61.
LapinskiMaria KnightRimalRajiv N. (2005), “An Explication of Social Norms,” Communication Theory, 15 (2), 127–47.
62.
LarsenKnud S. (1990), “The Asch Conformity Experiment: Replication and Transhistorical Comparison,” Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 5 (4), 163–68.
63.
LeeRichardMurphyJamieNealeLarry (2009), “The Interactions of Consumption Characteristics on Social Norms,” Journal of Consumer Marketing, 26 (4), 277–85.
64.
LeshnerAlan I. (1997), “Addiction Is a Brain Disease, and It Matters,” Science, 278 (5335), 45–47.
65.
LewisNehama (2013), “Priming Effects of Perceived Norms on Behavioral Intention Through Observability,” Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 43(Special Issue), E97–E108.
66.
LinLilyDahlDarren W.ArgoJennifer J. (2013), “Do the Crime, Always Do the Time? Insights into Consumer-to-Consumer Punishment Decisions,” Journal of Consumer Research, 40 (1), 64–77.
67.
LipseyMark W.WilsonDavid B. (2001), Practical Meta-Analysis. London: SAGE Publications.
68.
LisjakMonikaBonezziAndreaRuckerDerek (2021), “How Marketing Perks Influence Word of Mouth,” Journal of Marketing, 85 (5), 128–44.
69.
MannMillard F.HillThomas (1984), “Persuasive Communications and the Boomerang Effect: Some Limiting Conditions to the Effectiveness of Positive Influence Attempts,” in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 11, Thomas C. Kinnear, ed. Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, 66–70.
70.
ManningMark (2009), “The Effects of Subjective Norms on Behaviour in the Theory of Planned Behaviour: A Meta-Analysis,” British Journal of Social Psychology, 48 (40), 649–705.
71.
MathewesCharles (2010), Understanding Religious Ethics. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
72.
MeadNicole L.BaumeisterRoy F.StillmanTyler F.RawnCatherine D.VohsKathleen D. (2010), “Social Exclusion Causes People to Spend and Consume Strategically in the Service of Affiliation,” Journal of Consumer Research, 37 (5), 902–19.
73.
MelnykValentynaBijmoltTammo (2015), “The Effects of Introducing and Terminating Loyalty Programs,” European Journal of Marketing, 49 (3/4), 398–419.
74.
MelnykValentynaGiarratanaMarcoTorresAnna (2014), “Marking Your Trade: Cultural Factors in the Prolongation of Trademarks,” Journal of Business Research, 67 (4), 478–85.
75.
MelnykValentynaKleinKristinaVölcknerFranziska (2012), “The Double-Edged Sword of Foreign Brand Names for Companies from Emerging Countries,” Journal of Marketing, 76 (6), 21–37.
76.
MelnykVladimirVan HerpenEricaJakSuzanneVan TrijpHans C.M. (2019), “The Mechanisms of Social Norms’ Influence on Consumer Decision Making,” Zeitschrift für Psychologie, 227 (1), 4–17.
77.
MeyersChristopher (2004), “Cruel Choices: Autonomy and Critical Care Decision-Making,” Bioethics, 18 (2), 104–19.
78.
MilgramStanley (1974), Obedience to Authority. New York: Harper & Row.
79.
MillerClaude H.BurgoonMichaelGrandpreJoseph R.AlvaroEusebio M. (2006), “Identifying Principal Risk Factors for the Initiation of Adolescent Smoking Behaviors: The Significance of Psychological Reactance,” Health Communication, 19 (3), 241–52.
80.
MironAnca M.BrehmJack W. (2006), “Reactance Theory: 40 Years Later,” Zeitschrift für Sozialpsychologie, 37 (1), 9–18.
81.
NolanJessica M.Wesley SchultzP.CialdiniRobert B.GoldsteinNoah J.GriskeviciusVladas (2008), “Normative Social Influence Is Underdetected,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34 (7), 913–23.
82.
NunesJoseph C.OrdaniniAndreaGiambastianiGaia (2021), “The Concept of Authenticity: What It Means to Consumers,” Journal of Marketing, 85 (4), 1–20.
83.
OkadaErica Mina (2005), “Justification Effects on Consumer Choice of Hedonic and Utilitarian Goods,” Journal of Marketing Research, 42 (1), 43–53.
84.
OstromElinor (2000), “Collective Action and the Evolution of Social Norms,” Journal of Economic Perspectives, 14 (3), 137–58.
85.
PagiavlasSotiresKalaignanamKartikGillManpreetBliesePaul D. (2021), “Regulating Product Recall Compliance in the Digital Age: Evidence from the ‘Safe Cars Save Lives’ Campaign,” Journal of Marketing (published online May 20),https://doi.org/10.1177/00222429211023016.
86.
PettyRichard E.CacioppoJohn T. (1979), “Effects of Forewarning of Persuasive Intent and Involvement on Cognitive Responses and Persuasion,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 5 (2), 173–76.
87.
PlinerPatriciaMannNikki (2004), “Influence of Social Norms and Palatability on Amount Consumed and Food Choice,” Appetite, 42 (2), 227–37.
88.
RajaviKoushyarKushwahaTarunSteenkampJan-Benedict E.M. (2019), “A Multicategory, Multicountry Investigation of Sensitivity of Consumers’ Trust in Brands to Marketing-Mix Activities,” Journal of Consumer Research, 46 (4), 651–70.
89.
RaudenbushStephen W.BrykAnthony S.. (2002), Hierarchical Linear Models: Applications and Data Analysis Methods, 2nd ed.Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.
RivisAmandaSheeranPaschal (2003), “Descriptive Norms as an Additional Predictor in the Theory of Planned Behaviour: A Meta-Analysis,” Current Psychology, 22 (3), 218–33.
92.
RosenbergBenjamin D.SiegelJason T. (2018), “A 50-Year Review of Psychological Reactance Theory: Do Not Read This Article,” Motivation Science, 4 (4), 281–300.
93.
SamahaStephen A.BeckJoshua T.PalmatierRobert W. (2014), “The Role of Culture in International Relationship Marketing,” Journal of Marketing, 78 (5), 78–98.
94.
SavaniKrishnaWadhwaMonicaUchidaYukikoDingYuNaiduN.V.R. (2015), “When Norms Loom Larger Than the Self: Susceptibility of Preference–Choice Consistency to Normative Influence Across Cultures,” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 129 (July), 70–79.
95.
SchultzP. WesleyNolanJessica M.CialdiniRobert B.GoldsteinNoah J.GriskeviciusVladas (2007), “The Constructive, Destructive, and Reconstructive Power of Social Norms,” Psychological Science, 18 (5), 429–34.
96.
SchultzP. WesleyNolanJessica M.CialdiniRobert B.GoldsteinNoah J.GriskeviciusVladas (2018), “The Constructive, Destructive, and Reconstructive Power of Social Norms: Reprise,” Perspectives on Psychological Science, 13 (2), 249–54.
97.
ScottJohn Finley (1971), Internalization of Norms: A Sociological Theory of Moral Commitment. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
98.
SheeranPascalAbrahamCharlesOrbellSheina (1999), “Psychosocial Correlates of Heterosexual Condom Use: A Meta-Analysis,” Psychological Bulletin, 125 (1), 90–132.
99.
SilviaPaul J. (2005), “Deflecting Reactance: The Role of Similarity in Increasing Compliance and Reducing Resistance,” Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 27 (3), 277–284.
100.
StanleyTom D.DoucouliagosHristos (2012), Meta-Regression Analysis in Economics and Business. London: Routledge.
101.
StauntonMinaLouisWinnifred R.SmithJoanne R.TerryDeborah J.McDonaldRachel I. (2014), “How Negative Descriptive Norms for Healthy Eating Undermine the Effects of Positive Injunctive Norms,” Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 44 (4), 319–30.
102.
StephanUteUhlanerLorraine M. (2010), “Performance-Based vs. Socially Supportive Culture: A Cross-National Study of Descriptive Norms and Entrepreneurship,” Journal of International Business Studies, 41 (8), 1347–64.
103.
TeasdaleEmmaSanterMiriamGeraghtyAdam W.A.LittlePaulYardleyLucy (2014), “Public Perceptions of Non-Pharmaceutical Interventions for Reducing Transmission of Respiratory Infection: Systematic Review and Synthesis of Qualitative Studies,” BMC Public Health, 14 (1), 589.
104.
TungRosalie L.VerbekeAlain (2010), “Beyond Hofstede and GLOBE: Improving the Quality of Cross-Cultural Research,” Journal of International Business Studies, 41, 1259–74.
105.
Van den NoortgateWimLópez-LópezJosé AntonioMarín-MartínezFulgencioSánchez-MecaJulio (2015), “Meta-Analysis of Multiple Outcomes: A Multilevel Approach,” Behavior Research Methods, 47 (4), 1274–94.
106.
Van der LansRalfvan EverdingenYvonneMelnykValentyna (2016), “What to Stress, to Whom and Where? A Cross-Country Investigation of The Effects of Perceived Brand Benefits on Buying Intentions,” International Journal of Research in Marketing, 33 (4), 924–43.
107.
ViechtbauerWolfgang (2010), “Conducting Meta-Analyses in R with the Metafor Package,” Journal of Statistical Software, 36 (3), 1–48.
108.
WechslerHenryNelsonToben E.LeeJae EunSeibringMarkLewisCatherineKeelingRichard P. (2003), “Perception and Reality: A National Evaluation of Social Norms Marketing Interventions to Reduce College Students’ Heavy Alcohol Use,” Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 64 (4), 484–94.
109.
WhiteKatherineHabibRishadHardistyDavid J. (2019), “How to SHIFT Consumer Behaviors to Be More Sustainable: A Literature Review and Guiding Framework,” Journal of Marketing, 83 (3), 22–49.
110.
WhiteKatherineSimpsonBonnie (2013), “When Do (and Don’t) Normative Appeals Influence Sustainable Consumer Behaviors?” Journal of Marketing, 77 (2), 78–95.
111.
Zemack-RugarYaelMooreSarah G.FitzsimonsGavan J. (2017), “Just Do It! Why Committed Consumers React Negatively to Assertive Ads,” Journal of Consumer Psychology, 27 (3), 287–301.
112.
ZhangXiaolingLiShiboBurkeRaymond R.LeykinAlex (2014), “An Examination of Social Influence on Shopper Behavior Using Video Tracking Data,” Journal of Marketing, 78 (5), 24–41.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
