Pediatric acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection will soon be the primary infectious cause of perinatally acquired developmental disabilities in the United States. HIV encephalopathy and a variety of opportunistic infections, neoplasms, and vascular changes associated with pediatric HIV infection create a high probability of neuropsychological impairment among preschool and school-age children infected perinatally. Although the use of antiretrovirals may moderate some of the functional difficulties faced by these children, specific neuropathological and neuropsychological deficits are likely to remain. Treatments that prevent the central nervous system (CNS) effects of HIV have yet to be identified. As the epidemic progresses among women of child-bearing age, well-controlled developmental studies are needed to further clarify the relationship between HIV and child development, and to aid professionals in developing appropriate, school-based educational plans.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Armstrong, F.D. (1992). Psychosocial intervention in pediatric cancer: A strategy for prevention of long-term problems. In T. Field, P. McCabe, & N. Schneiderman (Eds.), Stress and coping in early development (pp. 197-218). New York: Erlbaum.
2.
Barbour, S.D. (1987). Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome of childhood . Pediatric Clinics of North America, 34, 247-268.
3.
Barkley, R.A. (1990). Associated problems, subtyping, and etiologies . In R.A. Barkley (Ed.), Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A handbook for diagnosis and treatment (pp. 74-105). New York: Guilford Press.
4.
Belman, A.L. (1990). Neurologic syndromes associated with symptomatic human immunodeficiency virus infection in infants and children. In P.B. Kozlowski, D.A. Snider, P.M. Vietze, & H.M. Wisniewski (Eds.), Brain in pediatric AIDS (pp. 45-63). Basel, Switzerland: S. Karger.
5.
Belman, A.L., Diamond, G., Dickson, D., Horoupian, D., Llena, J., Lantos, G., & Rubinstein, A. (1988). Pediatric acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. American Journal of Diseases of Children, 142, 29-35.
6.
Belman, A.L., Lantos, G., Horoupian, D., Novick, B.E., Ultmann, M.H., Dickson, D.W., & Rubinstein, A. (1986). AIDS: Calcification of the basal ganglia in infants and children. Neurology, 36, 1192-1199.
7.
Belman, A.L., Ultmann, M.H., Horoupian, D., Novick, B.D., Spiro, A.J., Rubinstein, A., Kurtzberg, D., & Cone-Wesson, B. (1985). Neurological complications in infants and children with acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). Annals of Neurology, 18, 560-566.
8.
Belman, A.L., Ultmann, M.H., Novick, B., Horoupian, D., Lantos, G., Diamond, G., Dickson, D., & Rubinstein, A. (1986). CNS involvement in infants and children with AIDS. Annals of Neurology, 20, 405-406.
9.
Brouwers, P., Belman, A.L., & Epstein, L.G. (1991). Central nervous system involvement : Manifestations and evaluation. In P.A. Pizzo & C.M. Wilfert (Eds.), Pediatric AIDS: The challenge of HIV infection in infants, children, and adolescents (pp. 318-335). Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins.
10.
Buckingham, S.L., & Van Gorp, W.G. (1988). AIDS-dementia complex: Implications for practice. Social Casework, 69, 371-375.
11.
Centers for Disease Control. (1990). Estimates of HIV prevalences and projected AIDS cases. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 39, 110-119.
12.
Centers for Disease Control. (1992). HIV/ AIDS surveillance report, year-end edition. Atlanta, GA: Author.
13.
Cohen, H.J., & Diamond, G.W. (1992). Developmental assessment of children with HIV infection. In A.C. Crocker, H.J. Cohen, & T.A. Kastner (Eds.), HIV infection and developmental disabilities: A resource for service providers (pp. 53-62). Baltimore: Brookes.
14.
Condrini, A., Cattalan, C., Viero, F., Casella, S., Zampiron, M., & Laverda, A.M. (1989). Psychic development of children born to HIV infected Italian mothers. V International Conference on AIDS: Abstracts , 5, 316.
15.
Cousens, P., Ungerer, J.A., Crawford, J.A., & Stevens, M.M. (1991). Cognitive effects of childhood leukemia therapy: A case for specific deficits. Journal of Pediatric Psychology , 16, 475-488.
16.
Crandles, S., & Jean, A. (1990). Caregivers' perceptions of their school-age children with perinatally acquired HIV infection. VI International Conference on AIDS: Abstracts, 6, 328.
17.
Curless, R.G., Scott, G.B., Post, M.J., & Gregorios, J.B. (1987). Progressive cytomegalovirus encephalopathy following congenital infection in an infant with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Child's Nervous System, 3, 255-257.
18.
DePaul, G.J., & Barkley, R.A. (1990). Medication therapy. In R.A. Barkley (Ed.), Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A handbook for diagnosis and treatment (pp. 573-612). New York: Guilford Press.
19.
Diamond, G.W. (1989). Developmental problems in children with HIV infection . Mental Retardation, 27, 213-217.
20.
Diamond, G.W., & Cohen, H.J. (1992). Developmental disabilities in children with HIV infection. In A.C. Crocker, H.J. Cohen, & T.A. Kastner (Eds.), HIV infection and developmental disabilities: A resource for service providers (pp. 33-42). Baltimore: Brookes.
21.
Diamond, G.W., Gurdin, P., Wiznia, A.A., Belman, A.L., Rubinstein, A., & Cohen, H.L. (1990). Effects of congenital HIV infection on neurodevelopmental status of babies in foster care. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 32, 999-1005.
22.
Diamond, G.W., Kaufman, J., Belman, A.L., Cohen, L., Cohen, H.J., & Rubinstein, A. (1987). Characterization of cognitive functioning in a subgroup of children with congenital HIV infection. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 2, 245-256.
23.
Emery, L.J., Anderson, G.R., & Annin, J.B. (1992). Child welfare concerns. In A.C. Crocker, H.J. Cohen , & T.A. Kastner (Eds.), HIV infection and developmental disabilities: A resource for service providers (pp. 95-103). Baltimore : Brookes .
24.
Epstein, L.G., Goudsmit, J., Paul, D.A., Morrison, S.H., Connor, E.M., Oleske, J.M., & Holland, B. (1987). Expression of human immunodeficiency virus in cerebrospinal fluid of children with progressive encephalopathy. Annals of Neurology, 21, 397-401.
25.
Epstein, L.G., Sharer, L.R., Joshi, V.V., Fojas, M.M., Koenigsberger, M.R., & Oleske, J.M. (1985). Progressive encephalopathy in children with acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Annals of Neurology, 17, 488-496.
26.
Epstein, L.G., Sharer, L.R., Oleske, J.M., Connor, E.M., Goudsmit, J., Bagdon, L., Robert-Guroff, M., & Koenigsberger, M.R. (1986). Neurologic manifestations of human immunodeficiency virus infection in children. Pediatrics , 78, 678-687.
27.
Falloon, J., Eddy, J., Wiener, L., & Pizzo, P.A. (1989). Human immunodeficiency virus in children. Journal of Pediatrics, 114, 1-30.
28.
Fauci, A.S. (1988). The human immunodeficiency virus: Infectivity and mechanisms for pathogenesis. Science, 239, 617-622.
29.
Fernandez, F., Adams, F., Levy, J.K., Holmes, V.F., Neidhart, M., & Mansell, P.W.A. (1988). Cognitive impairment due to AIDS-related complex and its response to psychostimulants. Psychosomatics, 29, 38-46.
30.
Fletcher, J.M., & Copeland, D.R. (1988). Neurobehavioral effects of central nervous system prophylactic treatment of cancer in children. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 10, 495-538.
31.
Fletcher, J.M., & Levin, H.S. (1988). Neurobehavioral effects of brain injury in children . In D.K. Routh (Ed.), Handbook of pediatric psychology (pp. 258-295). New York: Guilford Press.
32.
Frankenburg, W.K., Dodds, J.B., Fandal, A.W., Kazuk, E., & Cohrs, M. (1975). Denver developmental screening test (rev. ed.) . Denver: Denver Developmental Materials .
33.
Gallo, R.C., & Wong-Stall, F. (1985). A human T-lymphotropic retrovirus (HTLV-III) as a cause of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Annals of Internal Medicine, 103, 679-689.
Gottlieb, M.S., Schroff, R., Schanker, H.M., Weisman, J.D., Fan, P.T., Wolf, R.A., & Saxon, A. (1981). Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia and mucosal candidiasis in previously healthy homosexual men: Evidence of a new acquired cellular immunodeficiency. New England Journal of Medicine, 305, 1425-1431.
36.
Grosz, J., & Hopkins, K. (1992). Family circumstances affecting caregivers and brothers and sisters. In A.C. Crocker, H.J. Cohen, & T.A. Kastner (Eds.), HIV infection and developmental disabilities: A resource for service providers (pp. 53-62). Baltimore: Brookes.
37.
Harris, C., Butkus-Small, C., Klein, R.S., Friedland, G.H., Moll, B., Emeson, E.E., Spigland, I., & Steigbigel, N.H. (1983). Immunodeficiency in female sexual partners of men with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. New England Journal of Medicine, 308, 1181-1184.
38.
Harris, M.H. (1992). Habilitative and rehabilitative needs of children with HIV infection. In A.C. Crocker, H.J. Cohen, & T.A. Kastner (Eds.), HIV infection and developmental disabilities: A resource for service providers (pp. 85-94). Baltimore: Brookes.
39.
Hittleman, J. (1990). Neurodevelopmental aspects of HIV infection. In P.B. Kozlowski, D.A. Snider, P.M. Vietze, & H.M. Wisniewski (Eds.), Brain in pediatric AIDS (pp. 64-71). Basel, Switzerland: S. Karger.
40.
Ho, D.D., Rota, T.R., Schooley, R.T., Kaplan, J.C., Allan, J.D., Groopman, J.E., Resnick, L., Felsenstein, D., Andrews, C.A., & Hirsch, M.S. (1985). Isolation of HTLV-III from CSF and neural tissues of patients with AIDS related neurologic syndromes. New England Journal of Medicine, 313, 1493-1497.
41.
Hopkins, K.M. (1989). Emerging patterns of services and case finding for children with HIV infection. Mental Retardation, 27, 219-222.
42.
Johnson, J.P., Nair, P., Hines, S.E., Seiden, S.W., Alger, L., Revie, D.R., O'Neil, K.M., & Hebel, R. (1989). Natural history and serologic diagnosis of infants born to human immunodeficiency virus-infected women. American Journal of Diseases of Children, 143, 1147-1153.
43.
Kabagabo, U., Breden, K., Binyingo, M., Elonga, S., & Ryder, R. (1989). Developmental abnormalities may occur before other clinical manifestations of perinatally-acquired HIV infection: A cohort of 119 Zairian children born to seropositive mothers. V International Conference on AIDS: Abstracts, 5, 317.
44.
Kaplan, M., & Bedell, G. (1989). Movement disorders in children with perinatal HIV infection. V International Conference on AIDS: Abstracts , 5, 493.
45.
Kaufman, A.S., & Kaufman, N.L. (1983). Kaufman assessment battery for children. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service .
46.
Kilbourne, B.W., Buehler, J.W., & Rogers, M.F. (1990). AIDS as a cause of death in children, adolescents, and young adults. American Journal of Public Health, 80, 499-500.
47.
Kletter, R., Jeremy, R.J., Rumsey, C., Weintraub, P., & Cowan, M. (1989). A prospective study of the mental and motor development of infants born to HIV infected intravenous drug abusing mothers. V International Conference on AIDS: Abstracts, 5, 225.
48.
Koocher, G.P., & O'Malley, J.E. (1981). The Damocles syndrome: Psychosocial consequences of surviving childhood cancer. New York: McGraw-Hill.
49.
Kozlowski, P. (1992). Neuropathology of HIV infection in children. In A.C. Crocker, H.J. Cohen, & T.A. Kastner (Eds.), HIV infection and developmental disabilities: A resource for service providers (pp. 25-32). Baltimore: Brookes .
50.
Krasinski, K., Borkowsky, W., & Holzman, R.S. (1989). Prognosis of human immunodeficiency virus infection in children and adolescents. Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, 8, 216-220.
51.
Krener, P., & Miller, F.B. (1989). Psychiatric response to HIV spectrum disease in children and adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 28, 596-605.
52.
LaGreca, A.M. (1990). Social consequences of pediatric conditions: Fertile area for future investigation and intervention? Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 15, 285-308.
53.
Legido, A., Zimmerman, R.A., Packer, R.J., Bilaniuk, L.T., Siegel, K.R., & D'Angio, G. (1988). Significance of basal ganglia calcification on computed tomography in children. Pediatric Neuroscience, 14, 64-70.
54.
Levin, H.S., Ewing-Cobbs, L., & Benton, A.L. (1984). Age and recovery from brain damage: A review of clinical studies. In S.W. Scheff (Ed.), Age and recovery of function in the central nervous system (pp. 169-206). New York: Plenum Press.
55.
Levy, J.A., Shimabukuro, J., Hollander, H., Mills, J., & Kaminsky, L. (1985). Isolation of AIDS-associated retroviruses from cerebrospinal fluid and brain of patients with neurological symptoms. Lancet, 2, 586-588.
56.
Lifschitz, M., Hanson, C., Wilson, G., & Shearer, W.T. (1989). Behavioral changes in children with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. V International Conference on AIDS: Abstracts, 5, 316.
57.
Liss, M.B. (1989). The schooling of children with AIDS: The development of policies. In J.M. Seibert & R.A. Olson (Eds.), Children, adolescents, and AIDS (pp. 93-117). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
58.
Loveland, K.A., & Stehbens, J.A. (1990). Early neuro-developmental signs of HIV infection in children and adolescents. In P.B. Kozlowski, D.A. Snider, P.M. Vietze, & H.M. Wisniewski (Eds.), Brain in pediatric AIDS (pp. 72-79). Basel , Switzerland : S. Karger.
59.
Lyman, W.D., Kress, Y., Rashbaum, W.K., Calvelli, T.A., Steinhauer, E., Kashkin, J.M., Henderson, C.E., & Rubinstein, A. (1987). An AIDS virus-associated antigen localized in human fetal brain. Journal of Neuroimmunology , 16, 112.
60.
Marcus, J.C., Butler, C.A., Hittleman, J.H., Mendez, H., Goedert, J.J., & Willoughby, A. (1989). Pattern of neurological abnormalities in infants at risk for developing AIDS. V International Conference on AIDS: Abstracts, 5, 317.
61.
Meisels, S.J. (1988). Developmental screening in early childhood: The interaction of research and policy. Annual Review of Public Health, 9, 527-550.
62.
Meisels, S.J. (1989). Can developmental screening tests identify children who are developmentally at risk? Pediatrics, 83, 578-585.
63.
Miller, E.N., Selnes, O.A., McArthur, J.C., Satz, P., Becker, J.T., Cohen, B.A., Sheridan, K., Machado, A.M., Van Gorp, W.G., & Visscher, B. (1990). Neuropsychological performance in HIV-1-infected homosexual men: The multicenter AIDS cohort study (MACS). Neurology, 40, 197-203.
64.
Minkoff, H., Nanda, D., Menez, R., & Fikrig, S. (1987). Pregnancies resulting in infants with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome or AIDS-related complex: Follow-up of mothers, children, and subsequently born siblings. Obstetrics and Gynecology , 69, 288-291.
65.
Mintz, M., Rapaport, R., Oleske, J.M., Connor, E.M., Koenigsberger, M.R., Denny, T., & Epstein, L.G. (1989). Elevated serum levels of tumor necrosis factor are associated with progressive encephalopathy in children with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. American Journal of Diseases of Children, 143, 771-774.
66.
Moll, B., Emeson, E.E., Small, C.B., Friedland, G.H., Klein, R.S., & Spigland, I. (1982). Inverted ratio of inducer to suppressor T-lymphocyte subsets in drug users with opportunistic infections. Clinical Immunology and Immunopathology, 25, 417-423.
67.
Moss, H., Wolters, P., Eddy, J., Weiner, L., Pizzo, P., & Brouwers, P. (1989). The effects of encephalopathy and AZT treatment on the social and emotional behavior in pediatric AIDS. V International Conference on AIDS: Abstracts, 5, 328.
68.
Moss, H., Wolters, P., El-Amin, D., Butler, K., Brouwers, P., & Pizzo, P. (1990). The use of videotaped behavior samples of pediatric AIDS patients to evaluate psychosocial changes associated with encephalopathy before and after treatment. VI International Conference on AIDS: Abstracts, 6, 131.
69.
Novick, B.E. (1989). Pediatric AIDS: A medical overview. In J.M. Seibert & R.A. O1-son (Eds.), Children, adolescents, and AIDS (pp. 1-23). Lincoln : University of Nebraska Press.
70.
Pape, J.W., Liautaud, B., Thomas, F., Mathurin, J.R., St. Amand, M.M.A., Boncy, M., Pean, V., Pamphile, M., Laroche, A.C., & Johnson, W.D. (1983). Characteristics of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) in Haiti. New England Journal of Medicine, 309, 945-949.
71.
Peloquin, L.T., & Davidson, P.W. (1988). Psychological sequelae of pediatric infectious diseases. In D.K. Routh (Ed.), Handbook of pediatric psychology (pp. 222-257). New York: Guilford Press.
72.
Perrin, E.C., Stein, R.E.K., & Drotar, D. (1991). Cautions in using the Child Behavior Checklist: Observations based on research about children with a chronic illness. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 16, 411-422.
73.
Pizzi, M. (1989). Occupational therapy: Creating possibilities for children with HIV infection, ARC, and AIDS. AIDS Patient Care , 3, 31-36.
74.
Pizzo, P.A. (1990). Pediatric AIDS: Problems with problems. Journal of Infectious Diseases, 161, 316-325.
75.
Pizzo, P.A., Butler, K., Balis, F., Brouwers, E., Hawkins, M., Eddy, J., Einloth, M., Falloon, J., Husson, R., Jarosinski, P., Meer, J., Moss, H., Poplack, D.G., Santacroce, S., Weiner, L., & Wolters, P. (1990). Dideoxycytidine alone and in an alternating schedule with zidovudine in children with symptomatic human immunodeficiency virus infection. Journal of Pediatrics, 117, 799-808.
76.
Pizzo, P.A., Eddy, J., Falloon, J., Balis, F.M., Murphy, R.F., Moss, H., Wolters, P., Brouwers, P., Jarosinski, P., Rubin, M., Broder, S., Yarchoan, R., Brunetti, A., Maha, M., Nusinoff-Lehrman, S., & Poplack, D.G. (1988). Effect of continuous intravenous infusion of zidovudine (AZT) in children with symptomatic HIV infection. New England Journal of Medicine, 319, 889-896.
77.
Resnick, L., DeMarzo-Veronese, F., Schupbach, J., Tourtellotte, W.W., Ho, D.D., Muller, F., Shapshak, P., Vogt, M., Groopman, J.E., Markham, P.D., & Gallo, R.C. (1985). Intra-blood-brain barrier synthesis of HTLV-III-specific IgG in patients with neurologic symptoms associated with AIDS or AIDS-related complex. New England Journal of Medicine, 313, 1498-1504.
78.
Rogers, M.F., White, C.R., Sanders, R., Schable, C., Ksell, T.E., Wasserman, R.L., Bellanti, J.A., Peters, S.M., & Wray, B.B. (1990). Lack of transmission of human immunodeficiency virus from infected children to their household contacts. Pediatrics, 85, 210-214.
79.
Sanfilippo, M.J., Routh, D.K., Armstrong, F.D., Albrecht, J., & Davis, J.A. (1992, March). Personal space and coping in chronically and terminally ill children. Paper presented at the Conference on Stress, Coping, and Poverty: Impact on Children, Youth, and Families, Miami, FL.
80.
Sattler, J.M. (1988). Assessment of children (3rd ed.). San Diego: Jerome M. Sattler .
81.
Scott, G.B., Hutto, C., Makuch, R.W., Mastrucci, M.T., O'Connor, T., Mitchell, C.D., Trapido, E.J., & Parks, W.P. (1989). Survival in children with perinatally acquired human immunodeficiency virus Type 1 infection. New England Journal of Medicine, 321, 1791-1796.
82.
Seidel, J.F. (1991). The development of a comprehensive pediatric HIV developmental service program. In A. Rudigier (Ed.), Technical report on developmental disabilities and HIV infection (No. 7) (pp. 1-4). Silver Spring, MD: American Association of University Affiliated Programs.
83.
Seidel, J.F. (1992). Overcoming barriers in the service system. In A.C. Crocker, H.J. Cohen, & T.A. Kastner (Eds.), HIV infection and developmental disabilities: A resource for service providers (pp. 113-118). Baltimore : Brookes .
84.
Seidel, J.F., & Seibert, J.M. (1990). Pediatric HIV infection: Guidelines for psychosocial case management. Unpublished manuscript, University of Miami School of Medicine, Miami, FL.
85.
Selnes, O.A., Miller, E.N., McArthur, J.C., Gordon, B., Munoz, A., Sheridan, K., Fox, R., & Saah, A.J. (1990). HTV-1 infection : No evidence of cognitive decline during the asymptomatic stages. Neurology, 40, 204-208.
86.
Sharer, L.R., Epstein, L.G., Cho, E.S., Joshi, V.V., Meyenhofer, M.F., Rankin, L.F., & Petito, C.K. (1986). Pathologic features of AIDS encephalopathy in children : Evidence for LAV/HTLV-III infection of the brain. Human Pathology, 17, 271-284.
87.
Shaw, G.M., Harper, M.E., Hahn, B., Epstein, L.G., Gaydusek, D.C., Price, R.W., Navia, B.A., Petito, C.K., O'Hara, C.J., Cho, F.S., Oleske, J.M., Wong-Stall, F., & Gallo, R.C. (1985). HTLV-III infection in brains of children and adults with AIDS encephalopathy. Science, 227, 177-182.
88.
Simonds, R.J., & Rogers, M.F. (1992). Epidemiology of HIV in children and other populations . In A.C. Crocker, H.J. Cohen, & T.A. Kastner (Eds.), HIV infection and developmental disabilities: A resource for service providers (pp. 3-14). Baltimore: Brookes .
89.
Stuber, M.L. (1990). Psychiatric consultation issues in pediatric HIV and AIDS. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 29, 463-467.
90.
Swales, T.P. (1991). Cognitive and developmental evaluation of perinatal HJV-1 infection during infancy. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL.
91.
Taylor, K., & Lavallee, D. (1989). Neuropsychiatric management of AIDS. AIDS Patient Care, 3, 8-13.
92.
Tramontana, M.C., & Hooper, S.R. (1989). Neuropsychology of child psychopathology. In C.R. Reynolds & E. Fletcher-Janzen (Eds.), Handbook of clinical child neuropsychology (pp. 87-106). New York: Plenum Press.
93.
Tross, S., Price, R.W., Thaler, H.T., Gold, J., Hirsch, D.A., & Sidtis, J.J. (1988). Neuropsychological characterization of the AIDS dementia complex: A preliminary report. AIDS, 2, 81-88.
94.
Ultmann, M.H., Belman, A.L., Ruff, H.A., Novick, B.E., Cone-Wesson, B., Cohen, H.J., & Rubinstein, A. (1985). Developmental abnormalities in infants and children with acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) and AIDS-related complex. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology , 27, 563-571.
95.
Ultmann, M.H., Diamond, G.W., Ruff, H.A., Belman, A.L., Novick, B.E., Rubinstein, A., & Cohen, H.J. (1987). Developmental abnormalities in children with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS): A follow-up study. International Journal of Neuroscience, 32, 661-667.
96.
Vieira, J., Frank, E., Spira, T.J., & Landesman, S.H. (1983). Acquired immune deficiency syndrome in Haitians: Opportunistic infections in previously healthy Haitian immigrants. New England Journal of Medicine, 308, 125-129.
97.
Waters, B.G.H., Ziegler, J.B., Hampson, R., & McPherson, A.H. (1988). The psychosocial consequences of childhood infection with human immunodeficiency virus. Medical Journal of Australia, 149, 198-202.
98.
Williams, D.H., Levin, H.S., & Hillman, G.R. (1990). Neuropsychological and MRI findings in human HIV infection. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology , 12, 71.
99.
Wolinsky, S.M., Wike, C.M., Korber, B.T.M., Hutto, C., Parks, W.P., Rosenblum, L.L., Kunstman, K.J., Furtado, M.R., & Munoz, J.L. (1992). Selective transmission of human immunodeficiency virus Type-1 variants from mothers to infants. Science, 255, 1134-1137.
