Numerous empirical studies have demonstrated that stimulant drugs such as Ritalin do not improve the academic performance of hyperactive youngsters, though short-term manageability may be improved. This interesting article reviews and integrates many of the central research papers. In addition, the authors propose a potentially useful means of conceptualizing how stimulant drugs may act to assist the hyperactive youngster and his teacher. Their conceptualization leads directly to a variety of intervention plans as well as suggesting future research. — G.M.S.
The model and supporting research presented here propose that academic failure resulting from a variety of etiological factors is sufficient to generate the behavioral patterns observed in many hyperactive children. These responses can be strengthened and may persist because of the inadverlent social responses of teachers and peers or because of their effectiveness in reducing the frustration and anxiety elicited by failure. Treatment predictions confirmed by outcome research indicate that intervention focusing only on the child's hyperactive behavior will not result in improvements in academic achievement. In contrast, interventions aimed at increasing the child's level of success on academic tasks are likely to result in corresponding reductions in hyperactive behavior while improving the child's academic achievement.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Alexandris, A., Lundell, F.: Effect of thioridazine, amphetamine, and placebo on the hyperkinetic syndrome and cognitive area in mentally deficient children. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 1968, 98, 92–96.
2.
Allyon, T., Layman, D., Burke, S.: Disruptive behavior and reinforcement of academic performance. Psychological Record, 1972, 22, 315–323.
3.
Allyon, T., Layman, D., Kandel, H.: A behavioral-educational alternative to drug control of hyperactive children. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1975, 8, 137–146.
4.
Allyon, T., Roberts, M.: Eliminating discipline problems by strengthening academic performance. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1974, 7, 71–76.
5.
Azrin, N., Hutchinson, R., Hake, D.: Extinction-induced aggression. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 1966, 9, 191–204.
6.
Barkley, R.: A review of stimulant drug research with hyperactive children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 1977, 18 (in press). a
7.
Barkley, R.: The effects of methylphenidate on various types of activity level and attention in hyperactive children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 1977, 5 (in press), b
8.
Barkley, R., Cunningham, C.: Do stimulant drugs improve the academic performance of hyperactive children?A review of outcome research. Clinical Pediatrics, 1977, 16 (in press).
9.
Baumeister, A., Forehand, R.: Stereotyped acts. In N. R. Ellis (Ed.): International Review of Research in Mental Retardation.New York: Academic Press, 1973.
10.
Birnbrauer, J., Wolfe, M., Kidder, J., Tague, C.: Classroom behavior of retarded pupils with token reinforcement. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 1965, 2, 219–235.
11.
Blacklidge, V., Ekblad, R.: The effectiveness of methyl-phenidate hydrochloride on learning and behavior in public school educable mentally retarded children. Pediatrics, 1971, 47, 923–926.
12.
Buehler, R., Patterson, G., Furness, R.: The reinforcement of behavior in institutional settings. Behavior Research and Therapy, 1966, 4, 157–167.
13.
Campbell, S., Schleifer, M., Weiss, G., Perlman, T.: A two-year follow-up of hyperactive preschoolers. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 1977, 47, 140–162.
14.
Cantwell, D. (Ed.): The Hyperactive Child.New York: Spectrum, 1975.
15.
Cherek, D., Pickins, R.: Schedule-induced aggression as a function of fixed ratio values. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 1970, 14, 309–311.
16.
Conners, C., Rothschild, G.: Drugs and learning in children. In Learning Disorders, Volume 3. Seattle: Special Child Publications, 1968.
17.
Cunningham, C.: Compounding discriminative stimuli controlling free operant responding: Comparative analysis of attention and complex stimulus control in the normal and retarded child. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, American University, 1976.
18.
Douglas, V.: Stop, look, and listen: The problem of sustained attention and impulse control in hyperactive and normal children. Canadian Journal of Behavioral Science, 1972, 4, 259–282.
19.
Ferritor, D., Buckholdt, D., Hamblin, R., Smith, L.: The noneffects of contingent reinforcement for attending behavior on work accomplished. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1972, 5, 7–17.
20.
Goldstein, K.: After-effects of brain-injuries in war.New York: Grune & Stratton, 1942.
21.
Harris, V., Sherman, J.: Use and analysis of the “Good Behavior Game” to reduce disruptive classroom behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1973, 6, 405–418.
22.
Hoffman, S., Engelhardt, R., Margolis, R., Polizes, P., Waizer, J., Rosenfeld, R.: Response to methylphenidate in low socioeconomic hyperactive children. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1974, 30, 354–359.
23.
Hutchinson, R., Azrin, N., Hunt, G.: Attack produced by intermittent reinforcement of concurrent operant response. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 1968, 11, 489–495.
24.
Kirby, F., Shields, F.: Modification of arithmetic response rate and attending behavior in a seventh grade student. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1972, 5, 79–84.
25.
Krager, J., Safer, D.: Type and prevalence of medication used in treating hyperactive children. New England Journal of Medicine, 1975, 291, 1118–1120.
26.
McAllister, L., Stachowiak, J., Baer, D., Conderman, L.: The application of operant conditioning techniques in a secondary school classroom. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1969, 2, 277–285.
27.
Madsen, C., Jr., Becker, W., Thomas, D., Koser, L., Plager, E.: An analysis of the reinforcing function of “sit down” commands. In R. K. Parker (Ed.): Readings in Educational Psychology.Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1968.
28.
Richards, R., Rilling, M.: Aversive aspects of a fixed interval schedule of food reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 1972, 17, 405–411.
29.
Ross, A.: Psychological Aspects of Learning Disabilities and Reading Disorders.New York: McGraw-Hill, 1976.
30.
Safer, D., Allen, R.: Hyperactive Children: Diagnosis and Management.Baltimore: University Park Press, 1976.
31.
Schleifer, M., Weiss, G., Cohen, N., Elman, M., Cvejic, H., Kruger, E.: Hyperactivity in preschoolers and the effect of methylphevidate. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 1975, 45, 38–50.
32.
Sleator, E., Von Neumann, A., Sprague, R.: Hyperactive children: A continuous long-term placebo-controlled follow-up. Journal of the American Medical Association, 1974, 229, 316–317.
33.
Soloman, R., Wahler, R.: Peer reinforcement and control of classroom problem behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1973, 6, 49–56.
34.
Sprague, R., Toppe, L.: Relationship between activity level and delay of reinforcement in the retarded. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 1966, 3, 390.
35.
Sroufe, L. A.: Drug treatment of children with behavior problems. In F. D. Horowitz, M. Hetherington, S. Scarr-Salapatek, G. Spiegel (Eds.): Review of Child Development Research, Vol. 4. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 1975.
36.
Stier, S.: Report on education innovation: New not necessarily better. APA Monitor, 1977, 8 (3), 20, 27.
37.
Sulzer, B., Hunt, S., Ashby, E., Koniarski, C., Krams. M.: Increasing rate and percentage correct in slow readers by means of a token system. In E. Ramp and B. Hopkins (Eds.): A New Direction for Education: Behavior Analysis.Lawrence, Kansas: University of Kansas Support and Development Center for Follow Through, 1971.
38.
Terrace, H.: Conditioned inhibition in successive discrimination learning. In R. A. Boakes and M. S. Halliday (Eds.): Inhibition and Learning.New York: Academic Press. 1972.
39.
Terrace, H.: On the nature of nonresponding in discrimination learning with and without errors. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 1974, 22, 151–159.
40.
Thomas, D., Becker, W., Armstrong, M.: Production and elimination of disruptive classroom behavior by systematically varying teachers' behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1968, 1, 35–45.
41.
Ullman, D., Barkley, R., Brown, H.: The behavioral symptoms of children who successfully responded to stimulant drug treatment. Unpublished manuscript. Bowling Green State University, 1977.
42.
Weiss, G., Kruger, E., Danielson, U., Elman, M.: Effect of long-term treatment of hyperactive children with methylphenidate. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 1975, 112, 159–165.
43.
Weiss, G., Minde, K., Douglas, V., Werry, J., Sykes, D.: Comparison of the effects of chlorpromazine, dextroamphetamine, and methylphenidate on the behaviour and intellectual functioning of hyperactive children. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 1971, 104, 20–25.
44.
Wender, P.: Minimal Brain Dysfunction in Children.New York: J. Wiley & Sons, 1971.
45.
Werry, J.: Developmental hyperactivity. Pediatric Clinics of North America, 1968, 15, 581.
46.
Werry, J.: Some clinical and laboratory studies of psychotropic drugs in children: An overview. In W. Smith (Ed.): Drugs and Cerebral Function.Springfield: Charles C Thomas, 1970.
47.
Zentall, S., Zentall, T.: Activity and task performance of hyperactive children as a function of environmental stimulation. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1976, 44, 693–697.
