Restricted accessResearch articleFirst published online 2023-1
Writing Motivation of College Students in Basic Writing and First-Year Composition Classes: Confirmatory Factor Analysis of Scales on Goals,Self-Efficacy,Beliefs,and Affect
The purpose of the study was to validate a writing motivation questionnaire that consists of four scales for first-year college writers—students with low writing skills in basic writing classes and students in typical first-year composition (FYC)—to investigate differences between these two groups and to examine the relationship of motivational constructs with writing quality. Participants were 371 college students (142 in basic writing classes and 229 in FYC). Students completed a 49-item motivation questionnaire with scales for goal-orientation, self-efficacy, beliefs, and affect about writing and wrote an argumentative essay. Confirmatory factor analysis provided evidence for the structural construct validity of all scales for both groups. Statistically significant differences between basic writers and FYC students were found on self-efficacy for grammar and strategies and on beliefs about the importance of substance and mechanics. Structural equation modeling found statistically significant positive relationships of essay quality with all three self-efficacy scales and belief about the importance of substance to good writing, as well as negative relationships with avoidance goal orientation and belief in the importance of mechanics. Limitations and implications for motivation and instruction of basic writing students and of adults with learning disabilities are discussed.
American Educational Research Association, American Psychological Association, & National Council on Measurement in Education. (2014). Standards for educational and psychological testing. American Educational Research Association.
2.
BahrP. (2011). Deconstructing remediation in community colleges: Exploring associations between course-taking patterns, course outcomes, and attrition from the remedial math and remedial writing sequences. Research in Higher Education, 53(6), 661–693. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-011-9243-2
3.
BaileyT.JeongD.ChoS. (2010). Referral, enrollment, and completion in developmental education sequences in community colleges. Economics of Education Review, 29(2), 255–270. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2009.09.002
BanduraA. (2006). Guide for constructing self-efficacy scales. In PajaresF.UrdanT. C. (Eds.), Self-efficacy beliefs of adolescents (pp. 307–337). Information Age.
6.
BanksJ. (2014). Barriers and supports to postsecondary transition: Case studies of African American students with disabilities. Remedial and Special Education, 35(1), 28–39. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741932513512209
7.
BereiterC.ScardamaliaM. (1987). The psychology of written composition. Lawrence Erlbaum.
8.
BippT.SteinmayrR.SpinathB. (2008). Personality and achievement motivation: Relationship among Big Five domain and facet scales, achievement goals, and intelligence. Personality and Individual Differences, 44, 1454–1464. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2008.01.001
9.
BrownG. L.GlasswellK.HarlandD. (2004). Accuracy in the scoring of writing: Studies of reliability and validity using a New Zealand writing assessment system. Assessing Writing, 9(2), 105–121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asw.2004.07.001
10.
BrownellS.PriceJ.SteinmanL. (2013). Science communication to the general public: Why we need to teach undergraduate and graduate students this skill as part of their formal scientific training. Journal of Undergraduate Neuroscience Education, 12(1), E6–E10.
11.
BruningR.DempseyM.KauffmanD.MckimC.ZumbrunnS. (2013). Examining dimensions of self-efficacy for writing. Journal of Educational Psychology, 105(1), 25–38. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029692
BruningR. H.KauffmanD. F. (2016). Self-efficacy beliefs and motivation in writing development. In MacArthurC. A.GrahamS.FitzgeraldJ. (Eds.), Handbook of writing research (pp. 160–173). Guilford Press.
14.
ChenX. (2016). Remedial course taking at U.S. public 2-year and 4-year institutions: Score, experience, and outcomes (NCES 2016-405). U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2016/2016405.pdf
15.
CheungG. W.RensvoldR. B. (2002). Evaluating goodness-of-fit indexes for testing measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling, 9, 233–255. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15328007SEM0902_5
16.
CohenJ. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum.
17.
CortiellaC.HorowitzS. H. (2014). The state of learning disabilities: Facts, trends, and emerging issues. National Center for Learning Disabilities.
18.
CortinaJ. M. (1993). What is a coefficient alpha? An examination of theory and applications. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78(1), 98–104.
19.
ElliotA. J. (2007). A conceptual history of the achievement goal construct. In ElliotA. J.DweckC. S. (Eds.), Handbook of motivation and competence (pp. 52–72). Guilford Press.
20.
ElliotA. J.ChurchM. A. (1997). A hierarchical model of approach and avoidance achievement motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72(1), 218–232. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.72.1.218
21.
FanX.SivoS. A. (2005). Sensitivity of fit indices to misspecified structural or measurement model components: Rationale of two-index strategy revisited. Structural Equation Modeling, 12, 343–367. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15328007sem1203_1
22.
FieldsR.ParsadB. (2012). Tests and cut scores used for student placement in postsecondary education: Fall 2011. National Assessment Governing Board.
GrahamS.SchwartzS. S.MacArthurC. A. (1993). Knowledge of writing and the composing process, attitude towards writing, and self-efficacy for students with and without learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 26, 237–249. https://doi.org/10.1177/002221949302600404
25.
GrubbW. N.BonerE.FrankelK.ParkerL.PattersonD.GabrinerR.WilsonS. (2011). Basic skills instruction in community colleges: The dominance of remedial pedagogy (Basic Skills Instruction in California Community Colleges No. 2). Policy Analysis for California Education.
26.
HarrisK.GrahamS.MasonL. (2006). Improving the writing, knowledge, and motivation of struggling young writers: Effects of self-regulated strategy development with and without peer support. American Educational Research Journal, 43(2), 295–340. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3699421
27.
HayesJ. R. (1996). A new framework for understanding cognition and affect in writing. In LevyC. M.RansdellS. (Eds.), The science of writing (pp. 1–27). Lawrence Erlbaum.
28.
HayesJ. R.FlowerL. (1980). Identifying the organization of writing processes. In GreggL.SteinbergE. R. (Eds.), Cognitive processes in writing (pp. 3–30). Lawrence Erlbaum.
29.
HidiS.BoscoloP. (2006). Motivation and writing. In MacArthurC. A.GrahamS.FitzgeraldJ. (Eds.), Handbook of writing research (pp. 144–157). Guilford Press.
30.
HuL.BentlerP. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118
31.
JonesP.GloecknerG. (2004). First-year college performance: A study of home school graduates and traditional school graduates. The Journal of College Admissions, 183, 17–20.
32.
KauffmanD. F.ZhaoR.DempseyM. S.ZelenyM. G.WangS.BruningR. H. (2010, May). Achievement goals’ impact on 11th grade students’ affect, self-efficacy, and writing achievement [Paper presentation]. The American Educational Research Association annual meeting, Denver, CO, United States. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01406
33.
KelloggR. T. (1996). A model of working memory in writing. In LevyC. M.RansdellS. (Eds.), The science of writing: Theories, methods, individual differences, and applications (pp. 57–71). Lawrence Erlbaum.
34.
KlineP. (1999). The handbook of psychological testing (2nd ed.). Routledge.
35.
MacArthurC. A.GrahamS. (2016). Writing research from a cognitive perspective. In MacArthurC. A.GrahamS.FitzgeraldJ. (Eds.), Handbook of writing research (2nd ed., pp. 24–40). Guilford Press.
36.
MacArthurC. A.PhilippakosZ. A. (2013). Self-regulated strategy instruction in developmental writing: A design research project. Community College Review, 41(2), 176–195. https://doi.org/10.1177/0091552113484580
37.
MacArthurC. A.PhilippakosZ. A.GrahamS. (2016). A multi-component measure of writing motivation with basic college writers. Learning Disability Quarterly, 39(1), 31–43. https://doi.org/10.1177/0731948715583115
38.
MacArthurC. A.PhilippakosZ. A.IanettaM. (2015). Self-regulated strategy instruction in college developmental writing. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(3), 855–867. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000011
39.
MacCallumR. C.RoznowskiM.NecowitzL. B. (1992). Model modifications in covariance structure analysis: The problem of capitalization on chance. Psychological Bulletin, 111(3), 490–504. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.111.3.490
40.
MarshH. W.HauK. T.WenZ. (2004). In search of golden rules: Comment on hypothesis-testing approaches to setting cutoff values for fit indexes and dangers in overgeneralizing Hu and Bentler’s (1999) findings. Structural Equation Modeling, 11(3), 320–341. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15328007sem1103_2
41.
McCarthyP.MeierS.RindererR. (1985). Self-efficacy and writing: A different view of self-evaluation. College Composition & Communication, 36(4), 465–471. https://doi.org/10.2307/357865
42.
McCutchenD. (1986). Domain knowledge and linguistic knowledge in the development of writing ability. Journal of Memory and Language, 25(1), 431–444. https://doi.org/10.1016/0749-596X(86)90036-7
43.
MessickS. (1995). Validity of psychological assessment: Validation of inferences from person’s responses and performances as scientific inquiry into score meaning. American Psychologist, 50(9), 741–749. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.50.9.741
National Center for Educational Statistics. (2016). Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC) 2012/2014: U.S. national supplement public use data files-household. U.S. Department of Education.
46.
National Governors Association Center for Best Practices, Council of Chief State School Officers. (2010). Common Core state standards.
47.
National Research Council. (2012). Improving adult literacy: Options for practice and research. National Academy of Sciences.
PajaresF. (2003). Self-efficacy beliefs, motivation, and achievement in writing: A review of the literature. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 19(2), 139–158. https://doi.org/10.1080/10573560308222
50.
PajaresF.CheongY. (2003). Achievement goal orientations in writing: A developmental perspective. International Journal of Educational Research, 39(4–5), 437–455. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2004.06.008
51.
PajaresF.JohnsonM. J.UsherE. L. (2007). Sources of writing self-efficacy beliefs of elementary, middle, and high school students. Research in the Teaching of English, 42(1), 104–120. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40171749
52.
PajaresF.ValianteG. (2001). Gender differences in writing motivation and achievement of middle school students: A function of gender orientation?Contemporary Educational Psychology, 26(3), 366–381. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.2000.1069
53.
PajaresF.ValianteG. (2006). Self-efficacy beliefs and motivation in writing development. In MacArthurC. A.GrahamS.FitzgeraldJ. (Eds.), Handbook of writing research (pp. 160–173). Guilford Press.
54.
PattersonM. B. (2020). Adults with low skills and learning disabilities. In PerinD. (Ed.), Wiley handbook of adult literacy (pp. 337–360). John Wiley.
55.
PerinD. (2020). Reading, writing, and self-efficacy of low-skilled postsecondary students. In PerinD. (Ed.), Wiley handbook of adult literacy (pp. 237–260). John Wiley.
56.
PerinD.CharronK. (2006). “Lights just click on every day”: Academic preparedness and remediation in community colleges. In BaileyT. R.MorestV.S. (Eds.), Defending the community college equity agenda (pp. 155–194). John Hopkins University Press.
57.
PutnickD. L.BornsteinM. H. (2016). Measurement invariance conventions and reporting: The state of the art and future directions for psychological research. Developmental Review, 41(1), 71–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2016.06.004
58.
SchunkD. H. (1983). Goal difficulty and attainment information: Effects on children’s achievement behaviors. Human Learning: Journal of Practical Research & Applications, 2(2), 107–117.
59.
SchunkD. H. (1990). Goal setting and self-efficacy during self-regulated learning. Educational Psychologist, 25(1), 71–86. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep2501_6
60.
ShaughnessyM. (1977). Errors and expectations: A guide for teachers of basic writing. Oxford University Press.
61.
ShellD.MurphyC.BruningR. (1989). Self-efficacy and outcome expectancy mechanisms in reading and writing achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 81(1), 91–100. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.81.1.91
62.
SnyderT. D.de BreyC.DillowS. A. (2016). Digest of education statistics 2014 (NCES 2016-006). U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics. https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2017/2017094.pdf
63.
Traga PhilippakosZ. A. (2020). Developing strategic learners: Supporting self-efficacy through goal setting and reflection. The Language and Literacy Spectrum, 30(1), 1–24.
64.
Traga PhilippakosZ. A.MacArthurC. A. (2020). Writing strategy instruction for low-skilled postsecondary students. In PerinD. (Ed.), Wiley handbook of adult literacy (pp. 495–516). John Wiley.
65.
VandenbergR. J.LanceC. E. (2000). A review and synthesis of the measurement invariance: Suggestions, practice, and recommendations for organizational research. Organizational Research Methods, 2, 4–70. https://doi.org/10.1177/109442810031002
66.
VassiliouJ. (2011). Improved outcomes with computer-assisted instruction in mathematics and English language skills for Hispanic students in need of remedial education at Miami Dade College, Florida. Community College Journal of Research and Practice, 35(3), 191–201. https://doi.org/10.1080/10668926.2011.525195
67.
WhiteM. J.BruningR. (2005). Implicit writing beliefs and their relation to writing quality. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 30(2), 166–189. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2004.07.002
ZimmermanB.BanduraA. (1994). Impact of self-regulatory influences on writing course attainment. American Educational Research Journal, 31(4), 845–862. https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312031004845
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
