A Cumulative Risk and Resilience Model of Dyslexia

Abstract

Considerable attention and legislation are currently focused on developmental dyslexia. A major challenge to these efforts is how to define and operationalize dyslexia. In this article, we argue that rather than defining dyslexia on the basis of an underlying condition, dyslexia is best viewed as a label for an unexpected reading disability. This view fits well with a preventive approach in which risk for reading disability is identified and addressed prior to children experiencing reading failure. A risk–resilience model is introduced that proposes that dyslexia is due to the cumulative effects of risk and resilience factors. Evidence for the multifactorial causal basis of dyslexia is reviewed and potential factors that may offset this risk are considered. The implications of a cumulative risk and resilience model for early identification and intervention is discussed.

Keywords

dyslexia early identification/intervention resilience

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Aikens

N. L.

Barbarin

(2008). Socioeconomic differences in reading trajectories: The contribution of family, neighborhood, and school contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100(2), 235–251. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.100.2.235

Al Otaiba

Connor

C. M.

Folsom

J. S.

Wanzek

Greulich

Schatschneider

Wagner

R. K.

(2014). To wait in tier 1 or intervene immediately: A randomized experiment examining first-grade response to intervention in reading. Exceptional Children, 81(1), 11–27. https://doi.org/10.1177/0014402914532234

Al-Yagon

(2010). Maternal emotional resources and socio-emotional well-being of children with and without learning disabilities. Family Relations, 59(2), 152–169. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3729.2010.00592.x

Al-Yagon

Mikulincer

(2004). Socioemotional and academic adjustment among children with learning disorders: The mediational role of attachment-based factors. Journal of Special Education, 38(2), 111–123. https://doi.org/10.1177/00224669040380020501

Araújo

Reis

Petersson

K. M.

Faísca

(2015). Rapid automatized naming and reading performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(3), 868–883. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000006

Arnold

E. M.

Goldston

D. B.

Walsh

A. K.

Reboussin

B. A.

Daniel

S. S.

Hickman

Wood

F. B.

(2005). Severity of emotional and behavioral problems among poor and typical readers. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 33(2), 201–217. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-005-1828-9

Asparouhov

Muthén

(2014). Auxiliary variables in mixture modeling: Three-step approaches using M plus. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 21(3), 329–341. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705511.2014.915181

Astle

Fletcher-Martin

(2020). Beyond core deficit models in developmental disorders. Current Directions in Psychological Sciences, 29, 431–437. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721420925518

Berninger

V. W.

Abbott

R. D.

(2013). Differences between children with dyslexia who are and are not gifted in verbal reasoning. Gifted Child Quarterly, 57(4), 223–233. https://doi.org/10.1177/0016986213500342

10.

Bishop

D. V. M.

(2009). Genes, cognition, and communication: Insights from neurodevelopmental disorders. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1156(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04419.x

11.

Bishop

D. V. M.

Snowling

M. J.

Thompson

P. A.

Greenhalgh

& CATALISE Consortium. (2016). CATALISE: A multinational and multidisciplinary Delphi consensus study. Identifying language impairments in children. PLoS ONE, 11(7), Article e0168066. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0158753

12.

Blachman

B. A.

Tangel

D. M.

Ball

E. W.

Black

McGraw

C. K.

(1999). Developing phonological awareness and word recognition skills: A two-year intervention with low- income, inner-city children. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 11(3), 239–273. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1008050403932

13.

Blodgett

Lanigan

J. D.

(2018). The association between adverse childhood experience (ACE) and school success in elementary school children. School Psychology Quarterly, 33(1), 137–146. https://doi.org/10.1037/spq0000256

14.

Bosse

M. L.

Tainturier

M. J.

Valdois

(2007). Developmental dyslexia: The visual attention span deficit hypothesis. Cognition, 104, 198–230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2006.05.009

15.

Burns

M. K.

Petersen-Brown

Haegele

Rodriguez

Schmitt

Cooper

VanDerHeyden

A. M.

(2016). Meta-analysis of academic interventions derived from neuropsychological data. School Psychology Quarterly, 31(1), 28–42. https://doi.org/10.1037/spq0000117

16.

Cain

Compton

D. L.

Parrila

(2017). Theories of reading development. John Benjamins.

17.

Carroll

J. M.

Mundy

I. R.

Cunningham

A. J.

(2014). The roles of family history of dyslexia, language, speech production and phonological processing in predicting literacy progress. Developmental Science, 17, 727–742. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12153

18.

Carroll

J. M.

Solity

Shapiro

L. R.

(2016). Predicting dyslexia using pre-reading skills: The role of sensorimotor and cognitive abilities. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 57, 750–758. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12488

19.

Catts

H. W.

Adlof

S. M.

Hogan

T. P.

Weismer

S. E.

(2005). Are specific language impairment and dyslexia distinct disorders? Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 48(6), 1378–1396. https://doi.org/10.1044/1092-4388(2005/096)

20.

Catts

H. W.

Fey

M. E.

Zhang

Tomblin

J. B.

(1999). Language basis of reading and reading disabilities: Evidence from a longitudinal investigation. Scientific Studies of Reading, 3(4), 331–361. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532799xssr0304_2

21.

Catts

H. W.

Fey

M. E.

Zhang

Tomblin

J. B.

(2001). Estimating the risk of future reading difficulties in kindergarten children: A research-based model and its clinical implementation. Language, Speech & Hearing Services in Schools, 32(1), 38–50. https://doi.org/10.1044/0161-1461(2001/004)

22.

Catts

H. W.

Hogan

(2021). Dyslexia: An ounce of prevention is better than a pound of diagnosis. The Reading League Journal, 2, 6–13. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/nvgje

23.

Catts

H. W.

McIlraith

Bridges

Nielsen

(2017). Viewing a phonological deficit within a multifactorial model of dyslexia. Reading & Writing, 30(3), 613–629. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-016-9692-2

24.

Catts

H. W.

Nielsen

Bridges

Bontempo

Liu

(2015). Early identification of reading disabilities within an RTI framework. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 48, 281–297. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219413498115

25.

Cheesman

Hunjan

Coleman

J. R.

Ahmadzadeh

Plomin

McAdams

T. A.

Breen

(2020). Comparison of adopted and nonadopted individuals reveals gene-environment interplay in education in the UK Biobank. Psychological Science, 31, 582–591. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0956797620904450

26.

Compton

D. L.

Defries

J. C.

Olson

R. K.

(2001). Are RAN and phonological awareness deficits additive in children with reading disabilities? Dyslexia, 73(3), 125–149. https://doi.org/10.1002/dys.198

27.

Connor

C. M.

Morrison

Katch

(2004). Beyond the reading wars: Exploring the effect of child–instruction interactions on growth in early reading. Scientific Studies of Reading, 8(4), 305–336. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532799xssr0804_1

28.

Credé

(2018). What to do about grit: A critical view of what we know and what we don’t know. Educational Researcher, 9, 606–611. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X18801322

29.

Critchley

(1970). The dyslexic child. Charles C. Thomas.

30.

Davis

R. D.

(1997). The gift of dyslexia. Souvenir.

31.

Dearing

Kreider

Simpkins

Weiss

H. B.

(2006). Family involvement in school and low-income children’s literacy: Longitudinal associations between and within families. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98(4), 653–664. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.98.4.653

32.

De Bellis

M. D.

Zisk

(2014). The biological effects of childhood trauma. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 23(2), 185–222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chc.2014.01.002

33.

Delaney-Black

Covington

Ondersma

S. J.

Nordstrom-Klee

Templin

Ager

Sokol

(2002). Violence exposure, trauma, and IQ and/or reading deficits among urban children. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 156, 280–285. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpedi.156.3.280

34.

de Yong

(2020). Diagnosing dyslexia: How deep should we dig. In Washington

J. A.

Compton

D. L.

McCardle

(Eds.), Dyslexia: Revisiting etiology, diagnosis, treatment, and policy (pp. 31–43). Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.

35.

Dweck

C. S.

(2006). Mindset: The new psychology of success. Random House.

36.

Ehri

L. C.

Nunes

S. R.

Stahl

S. A.

Willows

D. M.

(2001). Systematic phonics instruction helps students learn to read: Evidence from the National Reading Panel’s meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 71(3), 393–447. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543071003393

37.

Eide

B. L.

Eide

F. F.

(2011). The dyslexic advantage: Unlocking the hidden potential of the dyslexic brain. Hudson Street.

38.

Eklund

K. M.

Torppa

Lyytinen

(2013). Predicting reading disability: Early cognitive risk and protective factors. Dyslexia, 19(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1002/dys.1447

39.

Elbro

Borstrøm

Petersen

D. K.

(1998). Predicting dyslexia from kindergarten: The importance of distinctness of phonological representations of lexical items. Reading Research Quarterly, 33, 36–60. https://doi.org/10.1598/rrq.33.1.3

40.

Elliott

J. G.

(2020). Its time to be scientific about dyslexia. Reading Research Quarterly, 55, S61–S75. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.333

41.

Elliott

J. G.

Grigorenko

E. L.

(2014). The dyslexia debate. Cambridge University Press.

42.

Facoetti

Corradi

Ruffino

Gori

Zorzi

(2010). Visual spatial attention and speech segmentation are both impaired in preschoolers at familial risk for developmental dyslexia. Dyslexia, 16, 226–239. https://doi.org/10.1002/dys.413

43.

Fletcher

J. M.

Lyon

G. R.

Fuchs

L. S.

Barnes

M. A.

(2019). Learning disabilities: From identification to intervention (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.

44.

Foorman

B. R.

Breier

J. I.

Fletcher

J. M.

(2003). Interventions aimed at improving reading success: An evidence-based approach. Developmental Neuropsychology, 24(2/3), 613-639. https://doi.org/10.1080/87565641.2003.9651913

45.

Forgatch

M. S.

Patterson

G. R.

Degarmo

D. S.

Beldavs

Z. G.

(2009). Testing the Oregon delinquency model with 9-year follow-up of the Oregon Divorce Study. Developmental Psychopathology, 21(2), 637–660. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579409000340

46.

Francis

D. J.

Fletcher

J. M.

Stuebing

K. K.

Lyon

G. R.

Shaywitz

B. A.

Shaywitz

S. E.

(2005). Psychometric approaches to the identification of LD: IQ and achievement scores are not sufficient. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 38, 98–108. https://doi.org/10.1177/00222194050380020101

47.

Fraser

M. W.

Galinsky

M. J.

(2004). Risk and resilience in childhood: Toward an evidence-based model of practice. In Fraser

M. W.

(Ed.), Risk and resilience in childhood: An ecological perspective (2nd ed., pp. 385–402). NASW Press.

48.

Frijters

J. C.

Barron

R. W.

Brunello

(2000). Direct and mediated influences of home literacy and literacy interest on prereaders’ oral vocabulary and early written language skill. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92(3), 466–477. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.92.3.466

49.

Goldberg

R. J.

Higgins

E. L.

Raskind

M. H.

Herman

K. L.

(2003). Predictors of success in individuals with learning disabilities: A qualitative analysis of a 20-year longitudinal study. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 18(4), 222–236. https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-5826.00077

50.

Haft

S. L.

Myers

C. A.

Hoeft

(2016). Socio-emotional and cognitive resilience in children with reading disabilities. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 10, 133–141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2016.06.005

51.

Hammill

Allen

(2020). A revised discrepancy model for identifying dyslexia. Journal of Pediatric Neuropsychology, 6, 27–43. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40817-020-00079-2

52.

Hirvonen

Georgiou

G. K.

Lerkkanen

Aunola

Nurmi

(2010). Task-focused behaviour and literacy development: A reciprocal relationship. Journal of Research in Reading, 33(3), 302–319. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9817.2009.01415.x

53.

Hus

(2001). Early reading for low-SES minority language children: An attempt to “catch them before they fall.” Folia Phoniatrica et Logopaedica, 53, 173–182. https://doi.org/10.1159/000052672

54.

Idan

Margalit

(2014). Socioemotional self-perceptions, family climate, and hopeful thinking among students with learning disabilities and typically achieving students from the same classes. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 47(2), 136–152. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219412439608

55.

Joo

S. J.

White

A. L.

Strodtman

D. J.

Yeatman

J. D.

(2018). Optimizing text for an individual’s visual system: The contribution of visual crowding to reading difficulties. Cortex, 103, 291–301. https://doi.org//10.1016/j.cortex.2018.03.013

56.

Landerl

Ramus

Moll

Lyytinen

Leppanen

H. T.

Lohvansuu

O’Donovan

Williams

Bartling

Bruder

Kunze

Neuhoff

Tóth

Honbolygó

Csépe

Bogliotti

Iannuzzi

Chaix

Démonet

J. F.

. . .Schulte-Korne

(2013). Predictors of developmental dyslexia in European orthographies with varying complexities. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54(6), 686–694. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12029

57.

Language and Reading Research Consortium, Mesa

Yeomans-Maldonado

(2019). The role of prekindergarten Spanish in predicting first grade English word reading among dual language learners. Journal of Speech, Language and Hearing Research, 62, 1755–1774. https://doi.org/10.1044/2019_JSLHR-L-17-0146

58.

Levy

B. A.

Gong

Hessels

Evans

M. A.

Jared

(2006). Understanding print: Early reading development and the contributions of home literacy experiences. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 93(1), 63–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2005.07.003

59.

Lovett

M. W.

Frijters

J. C.

Wolf

Steinbach

K. A.

Sevcik

R. A.

Morris

R. D.

(2017). Early intervention for children at risk for reading disabilities: The impact of grade at intervention and individual differences on intervention outcomes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 109(7), 889–914. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000181

60.

Lyytinen

Erskine

Hämäläinen

Torppa

Ronimus

(2015). Dyslexia-early identification and prevention: Highlights of the Jyvaskyla longitudinal study of dyslexia. Current Developmental Disorders Report, 2, 330–338. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40474-015-0067-1

61.

Lyytinen

Poikkeus

Laakso

Eklund

Lyytinen

(2001). Language development and symbolic play in children with and without familial risk for dyslexia. Journal of Speech, Language & Hearing Research, 44(4), 873–885. https://doi.org/10.1044/1092-4388(2001/070)

62.

Mascheretti

De Luca

Trezzi

Peruzzo

Nordio

Marino

Arrigoni

(2017). Neurogenetics of developmental dyslexia: from genes to behavior through brain neuroimaging and cognitive and sensorial mechanisms. Translational Psychiatry, 7(1), e987. https://doi.org/10.1038/tp.2016.2

63.

Masten

A. S.

(2018). Resilience theory and research on children and families: Past, present, and promise. Journal of Family Theory & Review, 10, 12–31. https://doi.org/10.1111/jftr.12255

64.

Masten

A. S.

Barnes

A. J.

(2018). Resilience in children: Developmental perspectives. Children, 5(7), 98. https://doi.org/10.3390/children507009

65.

Masten

A. S.

Wright

M. O.

(1998). Cumulative risk and protection models of child maltreatment. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 2(1), 7–30. https://doi.org/10.1300/J146v02n01_02

66.

Mather

White

Youman

(2020). Dyslexia around the world: A snapshot. Learning Disabilities, 25(1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.18666/LDMJ-2020-V25-I1-9552

67.

Maughan

Rowe

Loeber

Stouthamer-Loeber

(2003). Reading problems and depressed mood. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 31(2), 219–229. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022534527021

68.

McGrath

L. M.

Pennington

B. F.

Shanahan

M. A.

Santerre-Lemmon

L.E.

Barnard

H. D.

Willcutt

E. G.

Defries

J. C.

Olson

R. K.

(2011). A multiple deficit model of reading disability and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Searching for shared cognitive deficits. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52, 547–57. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02346.x

69.

McGrath

L. M.

Peterson

R. L.

Pennington

B. F.

(2020). The multiple deficit model: Progress, problems and prospects. Scientific Studies in Reading, 24, 7–13. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2019.1706180

70.

Melby-Lervåg

Lyster

S.-A. H.

Hulme

(2012). Phonological skills and their role in learning to read: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 138(2), 322–352. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026744

71.

Merrick

M. T.

Ford

D. C.

Ports

K. A.

Guinn

A. S.

(2018). Prevalence of adverse childhood experiences from the 2011-2014 behavioral risk factor surveillance system in 23 states. JAMA Pediatrics, 172(11), 1038–1044. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2018.2537

72.

Miciak

Fletcher

J. M.

(2020). The critical role of instructional response for identifying dyslexia and other learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 53, 343–353. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219420906801

73.

Morgan

P. L.

Farkas

(2012). Do poor readers feel angry, sad, and unpopular? Scientific Studies of Reading, 16(4), 360–381. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2011.570397

74.

Neuman

S. B.

Kaefer

Pinkham

A. M.

(2018). A double dose of disadvantage: Language experiences for low-income children in home and school. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110(1), 102–118. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000201

75.

Norton

E. S.

Wolf

(2012). Rapid automatized naming (RAN) and reading fluency: Implications for understanding and treatment of reading disabilities. Annual Review of Psychology, 63, 427–452. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100431

76.

O’Brien

Yeatman

(2021). Bridging the sensory and language theories of dyslexia: Toward a multifactorial model. Developmental Science, 24, e13039. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.13039

77.

Olulade

O. A.

Napoliello

E. M.

Eden

G. F.

(2013). Abnormal visual motion processing is not a cause of dyslexia. Neuron, 79(1), 180–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2013.05.002

78.

Ozernov-Palchik

Norton

E. S.

Sideridis

Beach

S. D.

Wolf

Gabrieli

J. D.

Gaab

(2017). Longitudinal stability of pre-reading skill profiles of kindergarten children: Implications for early screening and theories of reading. Developmental Science, 205(5), Article e12471. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12471

79.

Pennington

B. F.

(2006). From single to multiple deficit models of developmental disorders. Cognition, 101(2), 385–413. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2006.04.008

80.

Pennington

B. F.

Santerre-Lemmon

Rosenberg

MacDonald

Boada

Friend

Leopold

D. R.

Samuelsson

Byrne

Willcutt

E. G.

Olson

R. K.

(2012). Individual prediction of dyslexia by single versus multiple deficit models. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 121, 212–224. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025823

81.

Peterson

R. L.

Pennington

B. F.

(2015). Developmental dyslexia. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 11, 283–307. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032814-112842

82.

Petscher

Al Otaiba

Wanzek

(2021). Study of the factor structure, profiles, and concurrent validity of the mindset assessment profile tool for elementary students. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 39, 74–88. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734282920943456

83.

Petscher

Al Otaiba

Wanzek

Rivas

Jones

(2017). The relation between global and specific mindset with reading outcomes for elementary school students. Scientific Studies of Reading, 21(5), 376–391. https://doi.org//10.1080/10888438.2017.1313846

84.

Petscher

Catts

(2021). Screening for dyslexia: Intersections among cognitive, linguistic, and biopsychosocial factors. https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.14611308

85.

Petscher

Truckenmiller

Zhou

(2016). The earlier assessment for reading success [Web application software]. Florida State University.

86.

Plomin

DeFries

J. C.

Knopik

V. S.

Neiderhiser

J. M.

(2013). Behavioral genetics (6th ed.). Worth Publishers.

87.

Plomin

Kovas

(2005). Generalist genes and learning disabilities. Psychological Bulletin, 131(4), 592–617. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.131.4.592

88.

Prevoo

Malda

Mesman

van IJzendoorn

(2016). Within- and cross-language relations between oral language proficiency and school outcomes in bilingual children with an immigrant background: A meta-analytical study. Review of Educational Research, 86, 237–276. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315584685

89.

Protopapas

(2019). Evolving concepts of defining dyslexia and their implications for research and remediation. Frontiers in Psychology, Article 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02873

90.

Puglisi

Hulme

Hamilton

L. G.

Snowling

M. J.

(2017). The home literacy environment is a correlate, but perhaps not a cause, of variations in children’s language and literacy development. Scientific Studies of Reading, 21(6), 498–514. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2017.1346660

91.

Puolakanaho

Ahonen

Aro

Eklund

Leppanen

P. H.

Poikkeus

A. M.

Tolvanen

Torppa

Lyytinen

(2007). Very early phonological and language skills: Estimating individual risk of reading disability. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48, 923–931. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01763.x

92.

Ramus

Rosen

Dakin

S. C. L.

Day

B. M.

Castellote

White

Frith

(2003). Theories of developmental dyslexia: Insights from a multiple case study of dyslexic adults. Brain, 126, 841–865. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awg076

93.

Romeo

R. R.

Christodoulou

J. A.

Halverson

K. K.

Murtagh

Cyr

A. B.

Schimmel

Chang

Hook

P. E.

Gabrieli

(2018). Socioeconomic status and reading disability: Neuroanatomy and plasticity in response to intervention. Cerebral Cortex, 28(7), 2297–2312. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhx131

94.

Rutter

(1985). Resilience in the face of adversity: Protective factors and resistance to psychiatric disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry, 147(6), 598–611. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.147.6.598

95.

Scammacca

Vaughn

Roberts

Wanzek

Torgesen

J. K.

(2007). Extensive Reading Interventions in Grades K-3: From research to practice. RMC Research Corporation, Center on Instruction.

96.

Scarborough

H. S.

(1990). Very early language deficits in dyslexic children. Child Development, 61, 1728–1743. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1990.tb03562.x

97.

Schatschneider

Carlson

C. D.

Francis

D. J.

Foorman

B. R.

Fletcher

J. M.

(2002). Relationship of rapid automatized naming and phonological awareness in early reading development: Implications for the double-deficit hypothesis. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 35(3), 245–256. https://doi.org/10.1177/002221940203500306

98.

Sisk

V. F.

Burgoyne

A. P.

Sun

Butler

J. L.

Macnamara

B. N.

(2018). To what extent and under which circumstances are growth mind-sets important to academic achievement? Two meta-analyses. Psychological Science, 29(4), 549–571. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797617739704

99.

Skiba

R. J.

Simmons

A. B.

Ritter

Gibb

A. C.

Rausch

M. K.

Cuadrado

Chung

C. G.

(2008). Achieving equity in special education: History, status, and current challenges. Exceptional Children, 74(3), 264–288. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440290807400301

100.

Snowling

M. L.

(1998). Dyslexia as a phonological deficit: Evidence and implications. Child Psychology and Psychiatry Review, 3, 4–11. https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-3588.00201

101.

Snowling

M. J.

(2008). Specific disorders and broader phenotypes: The case of dyslexia. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 61(1), 142–156. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470210701508830

102.

Snowling

M. J.

Hulme

Nation

(2020). Defining and understanding dyslexia: Past, present and future. Oxford Review of Education, 46(4), 501–513. https://doi.org/10.1080/03054985.2020.1765756

103.

Snowling

M. J.

Melby-Lervåg

(2016). Oral language deficits in familial dyslexia: A meta-analysis and review. Psychological Bulletin, 142(5), 498–545. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000037

104.

Snowling

M. J.

Nash

H. M.

Gooch

Hayiou Thomas

M. E.

Hulme

, & Welcome Language and Reading Project Team. (2019). Developmental outcomes of children at high risk for dyslexia and children with developmental language disorder. Child Development, 905(5), e548–e564. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13216

105.

Stein

(2001). The magnocellular theory of developmental dyslexia. Dyslexia, 7, 12–36. https://doi.org/10.1002/dys.186

106.

Stephenson

K. A.

Parrila

R. K.

Georgiou

G. K.

Kirby

J. R.

(2008). Effects of home literacy, parents’ beliefs, and children’s task-focused behavior on emergent literacy and word reading skills. Scientific Studies of Reading, 12(1), 24–50. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888430701746864

107.

Stuebing

K. K.

Fletcher

J. M.

LeDoux

J. M.

Lyon

G. R.

Shaywitz

S. E.

Shaywitz

B. A.

(2002). Validity of IQ discrepancy classifications of reading disabilities: A meta-analysis. American Educational Research Journal, 39(2), 469–518. doi.org/10.3102/00028312039002469

108.

Tamm

Denton

C. A.

Epstein

J. N.

Schatschneider

Taylor

Arnold

L. E.

Bukstein

Anixt

Koshy

Newman

N. C.

Maltinsky

Brinson

Loren

R. E. A.

Prasad

M. R.

Ewing-Cobbs

Vaughn

(2017). Comparing treatments for children with ADHD and word reading difficulties: A randomized clinical trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 85(5), 434–446. https://doi.org/10.1037/ccp0000170

109.

Thompson

P. A.

Hulme

Nash

H. M.

Gooch

Hayiou-Thomas

Snowling

M. J.

(2015). Developmental dyslexia: Predicting individual risk. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 56(9), 976–987. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12412

110.

Torgesen

J. K.

Wagner

R. K.

Rashotte

C. A.

Lindamood

Rose

Conway

Garvan

(1999). Preventing reading failure in young children with phonological processing disabilities: Group and individual responses to instruction. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 579–593. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.91.4.579

111.

van Bergen

van der Leij

de Jong

(2014). The intergenerational multiple deficit model and the case of dyslexia. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 8(346), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00346

112.

van Bergen

van Zuijen

Bishop

de Jong

P. F.

(2017). Why are home literacy environment and children’s reading skills associated? What parental skills reveal. Reading Research Quarterly, 52(2)147–160. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.160

113.

van den Boer

van Bergen

de Jong

P. F.

(2015). The specific relation of visual attention span with reading and spelling in Dutch. Learning and Individual Differences, 39, 141–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2015.03.017

114.

van Viersen

de Bree

E. H.

de Jong

P. F.

(2019). Protective factors and compensation in resolving dyslexia. Scientific Studies in Reading, 23, 464–477. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2019.1603543

115.

van Viersen

de Bree

E. H.

Zee

Maassen

van der Leij

de Jong

P. F.

(2018). Pathways into literacy: The role of early oral language abilities and family risk for dyslexia. Psychological Science, 29(3), 418–428. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797617736886

116.

van Viersen

Kroesbergen

E. H.

Slot

E. M.

de Bree

E. H.

(2014). High reading skills mask dyslexia in gifted children. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 49(2), 189–199. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219414538517

117.

Vidyasagar

T. R.

Pammer

(2010). Dyslexia: A deficit in visuo-spatial attention, not in phonological processing. Trends in Cognitive. Science, 14, 57–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2009.12.003

118.

Wagner

R. K.

Edwards

A. A.

Malkowski

Schatschneider

Joyner

R. E.

Wood

Zirps

F. A.

(2019). Combining old and new for better understanding and predicting dyslexia. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 165, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1002/cad.20289

119.

Wanzek

Vaughn

(2007). Research-based implications from extensive early reading interventions. School Psychology Review, 36(4), 541–561. https://doi.org/10.1080/02796015.2007.12087917

120.

White

Milne

Rosen

Hansen

Swettenham

Frith

Ramus

(2006). The role of sensorimotor impairments in dyslexia: A multiple case study of dyslexic adults. Developmental Science, 9, 237–255. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2006.00483.x

121.

Willcutt

Pennington

(2000). Psychiatric comorbidity in children and adolescents with reading disability. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 41(8), 1039–1048. https://doi.org/10.1111/1469-7610.00691

122.

Wolf

Bowers

P. G.

(1999). The double-deficit hypothesis for the developmental dyslexias. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91(3), 415–438. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.91.3.415

123.

Yeager

D. S.

Hanselman

Walton

G. M.

Murray

J. S.

Crosnoe

Muller

Tipton

Schneider

Hulleman

C. S.

Hinojosa

C. P.

Paunesku

Romero

Flint

Roberts

Trott

Iachan

Buontempo

Yang

S. M.

Carvalho

C. M.

. . .Dweck

C. S.

(2019). A national experiment reveals where a growth mindset improves achievement. Nature, 573, 364–369. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1466-y

124.

Youman

Mather

(2018). Dyslexia laws in the USA: A 2018 update. Perspectives on Language and Literacy, 44(2), 37–41. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11881-012-0076-2

125.

Zuk

Gaab

(2018). What factors facilitate resilience in developmental dyslexia? Examining protective and compensatory mechanisms across the neurodevelopmental trajectory. Child Development Perspectives, 12(4), 240–246. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12293

126.

Zheng

Erickson

A. G.

Kingston

N. M.

Noonan

P. M.

(2014). The relationship among self-determination, self-concept, and academic achievement for students with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 47(5), 462–474. https://doi.org/101177/0022219412469688