This study examined the role of adolescents’ perceived close relationships with significant others (attachment relationships with mothers/fathers, appraisal of homeroom teacher as secure base, and quality of peer friendship) in explaining differences in their socioemotional and behavioral functioning (peer-network/peer-dyadic loneliness, positive/negative affect, and externalizing/internalizing problems), among adolescents with learning disabilities (LD), with comorbid LD and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), or with typical development (TD). Participants were 280 adolescents in Grades 10 through 11 in three groups: LD (n = 90), comorbid LD and ADHD (n = 91), and TD (n = 98). Preliminary analyses yielded significant group differences on most socioemotional and behavioral measures. Structural equation modeling (SEM) analysis indicated high fit between the theoretical model and empirical findings and partially different patterns of relationships among the model’s components for the three populations. The discussion focuses on the possible unique value of close relationships with each significant attachment figure for adolescents with LD, comorbid LD–ADHD, and TD.
AchenbachT. M. (1991). Manual for the Child Behavior Checklist: 4-18 and 1991 profile. Burlington: University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry.
2.
AchenbachT. M.DumenciL. (2001). Advances in empirically based assessment: Revised cross-informant syndromes and new DSM-oriented scale for CBCL, YSR, and TRF: Comment of Lengua, Sadowski, Friedrich, and Fisher (2001). Journal of Counseling and Clinical Psychology, 69, 699–702.
3.
AllenJ. P. (2008). The attachment system in adolescence. In CassidyJ.ShaverP. R. (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (pp. 419–435). New York: Guilford Press.
4.
Al-YagonM. (2007). Socioemotional and behavioral adjustment among school-age children with learning disabilities: The moderating role of maternal personal resources. Journal of Special Education, 40, 205–217.
5.
Al-YagonM. (2009). Comorbid LD and ADHD in childhood: Socioemotional and behavioural adjustment and parents’ positive and negative affect. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 24, 371–391.
6.
Al-YagonM. (2012). Adolescents with learning disabilities: Socioemotional and behavioral functioning and attachment relationships with fathers, mothers, and teachers. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 41, 1294–1311.
7.
Al-YagonM. (in press). Child-mother and child-father attachment security: Links to internalizing adjustment among children with learning disabilities. Child Psychiatry and Human Development.
8.
Al-YagonM.MargalitM. (2013). Social cognition of children and adolescents with LD: Intrapersonal and interpersonal perspectives. In SwansonH. L.HarrisK.GrahamS. (Eds.), Handbook of learning disabilities (2nd ed., pp. 278–292). New York: Guilford Press.
9.
Al-YagonM.MikulincerM. (2004). Socioemotional and academic adjustment among children with learning disorders: The mediational role of attachment-based factors. Journal of Special Education, 38, 111–123.
10.
Al-YagonM.MikulincerM. (2006). Children’s appraisal of teacher as a secure base and their socio-emotional and academic adjustment in middle childhood. Research in Education, 75, 1–18.
11.
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text rev.). Washington, DC: Author.
12.
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing.
13.
AmmanitiM.van IJzendoornM. H.SperanzaA. M.TambelliR. (2000). Internal working models of attachment during late childhood and early adolescence: An exploration of stability and change. Attachment and Human Development, 2, 328–346.
14.
AsherS. R.PaquetteJ. A. (2003). Loneliness and peer relations in childhood. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 12, 75–78.
15.
AsherS. R.ParkhurstJ. T.HymelS.WilliamsG. A. (1990). Peer rejection and loneliness in childhood. In AsherS. R.CoieJ. D. (Eds.), Peer rejection in childhood (pp. 253–273). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
16.
BeckerS. P.FiteP. J.LuebbeA. M.StoppelbeinL.GreeningL. (2012). Friendship intimacy exchange buffers the relation between ADHD symptoms and later social problems among children attending an after-school care program. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 35, 142–152.
17.
BerndtT. J. (2002). Friendship quality and social development. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 11, 7–10.
18.
BowlbyJ. (1988). A secure base: Clinical applications of attachment theory. London: Routledge.
19.
BrennanK. A.ClarkC. L.ShaverP. R. (1998). Self-report measurement of adult attachment: An integrative overview. In SimpsonJ. A.RholesW. S. (Eds.), Attachment theory and close relationships (pp. 46–76). New York: Guilford Press.
20.
BrethertonI. (2010). Fathers in attachment theory and research: A review. Early Child Development and Care, 180(1–2), 9–23.
21.
CapozziF.CasiniM. P.RomaniM.De GennaroL.NicolaisG.SolanoL. (2008). Psychiatric comorbidity in learning disorder: Analysis of family variables. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 39, 101–110.
22.
CassidyJ.ShaverP. R. (2008). Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press.
23.
ClarkC. R.PaulR. H.WilliamsL. M.ArnsM.FallahpourK.HandmerC.GordonE. (2006). Standardized assessment of cognitive functioning during development and aging using an automated touchscreen battery. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 21, 449–467.
24.
ClarkeL.UngererJ.ChahoudK.JohnsonS.StiefelI. (2002). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder is associated with attachment insecurity. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 7, 179–198.
25.
ConnersC. K. (2008). Conners rating scales (3rd ed.). Toronto, Canada: Multi Health Systems.
26.
DuPaulG. J.GormleyM. J.LaracyS. D. (2013). Comorbidity of LD and ADHD: Implications of DSM-5 for assessment and treatment. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 46(1), 43–51.
27.
EngelsR. C.FinkenauerC.MeeusW.DekovicM. (2001). Parental attachment and adolescents’ emotional adjustment: The association with social skills and relational competence. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 48, 428–439.
28.
EstellD. B.JonesM. H.PearlRVan AckerR.FarmerT. W.RodkinP. C. (2008). Peer group, popularity, and social preference trajectories of social functioning among students with and without learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 41, 5–14.
29.
FolkmanS.MoskowitzJ. T. (2004). Coping: Pitfalls and promise. Annual Review in Psychology, 55, 745–774.
30.
ForbesE. E.DahlR. E. (2010). Pubertal development and behavior: Hormonal activation of social and motivational tendencies. Brain and Cognition, 72, 66–72.
31.
GeorgeC.KaplanN.MainM. (1985). The adult attachment interview. Unpublished protocol, University of California, Berkeley, Department of Psychology.
32.
Gifford-SmithM. E.BrownellC. A. (2003). Childhood peer relationships: Social acceptance, friendships, and peer networks. Journal of School Psychology, 41, 235–284.
33.
GranotD.MayslessO. (2001). Attachment security and adjustment to school in middle childhood. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 25, 530–541.
34.
GreshamD.GulloneE. (2012). Emotion regulation strategy use in children and adolescents: The explanatory roles of personality and attachment. Personality and Individual Differences, 52, 616–621.
35.
GrossmannK. E.GrossmannK.Fremmer-BombikE.KindlerH.Scheurer-EnglischH.ZimmermanP. (2002). The uniqueness of the child-father attachment relationships: Fathers’ sensitive and challenging play as a pivotal variable in a 16-year longitudinal study. Social Development, 11, 207–331.
36.
GrossmannK. E.GrossmannK.WatersE. (2006). Attachment from infancy to adulthood. New York: Guilford Press.
37.
HeathN. L.RossS. (2000). Prevalence and expression of depressive symptomotology in student with and without learning disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly, 23, 24–36.
38.
HozaB.BukowskiW. M.BeeryS. (2000). Assessing peer network and dyadic loneliness. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 29, 119–128.
39.
HozaB.McQuadeJ. D.Murray-CloseD.ShoulbergE.MolinaB. S. G.ArnoldL. E.SwansonJ. (2013). Does childhood positive self-perceptual bias mediate adolescent risky behavior in youth from the MTA study?Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 81, 846–858.
40.
HuL.BentlerP. M. (1995). Evaluating model fit. In HoyleR. H. (Ed.), Structural equation modeling: Concepts, issues, and applications (pp. 76–99). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
41.
IronsC.GilbertP. (2005). Evolved mechanisms in adolescent anxiety and depression symptoms: The role of the attachment and social rank systems. Journal of Adolescence, 28, 325–341.
42.
KellnerR.HoughtonS.DouglasG. (2003). Peer-related personal experiences of children with attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder with and without comorbid learning disabilities. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 50, 119–136.
43.
KernsK. A.AspelmeierJ. E.GentzlerA. L.GrabillC. M. (2001). Parent-child attachment and monitoring in middle childhood. Journal of Family Psychology, 15(1), 69–81.
44.
KernsK. A.KlepacL.ColeA. (1996). Peer relationships and preadolescents’ perceptions of security in the child-mother relationship. Developmental Psychology, 32, 457–466.
45.
KernsK. A.RichardsonR. A. (Eds.) (2005). Attachment in middle school. New York: Guilford Press.
46.
KullikA.PetermannF. (2013). Attachment to parents and peers as a risk factor for adolescent depressive disorders: The mediating role of emotion regulation. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 44, 537–548.
47.
LackayeT.MargalitM. (2006). Comparisons of achievement, effort and self-perceptions among students with learning disabilities and their peers from different achievement groups. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 39, 432–446.
48.
LambM. E. (2002). Infant-father attachments and their impact on child development. In Tamis-LeMondaC.CabreraN. (Eds.), Handbook of father involvement: Multidisciplinary perspectives (pp. 93–117). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
49.
LeeA.HankinB. L. (2009). Insecure attachment, dysfunctional attitudes, and low self-esteem predicting prospective symptoms of depression and anxiety during adolescence. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 38, 219–231.
50.
LiebermanM.DoyleA.MarkiewiczD. (1999). Developmental patterns in security of attachment to mother and father in late childhood and early adolescence: Associations with peer relations. Child Development, 7, 202–213.
51.
LittleT. D. (2013). Longitudinal structural equation modeling. New York: Guilford Press.
52.
LynchM.CicchettiD. (1997). Children’s relationships with adult and peers: An examination of elementary and junior high school students. Journal of School Psychology, 35, 81–99.
53.
MaagJ. W.ReidR. (2006). Depression among students with learning disabilities: Assessing the risk. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 39, 3–10.
54.
MargalitM. (1995, September). The salutogenic approach and learning disabilities: Coherence, friendship and loneliness. Paper presented at the annual conference of the Society for Research in Child Development, Indianapolis, IN.
55.
MargalitM. (2010). Lonely children and adolescents: Self perceptions, social exclusion and hope. New York: Springer.
56.
MargalitM.AnkoninaD. B. (1991). Positive and negative affect in parenting disabled children. Counseling Psychology Quarterly, 4, 289–299.
57.
MarkelC.WienerJ. (2014). Attribution processes in parent–adolescent conflict in families of adolescents with and without ADHD. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue Canadienne des Sciences du Comportement, 46, 40–48.
58.
McNamaraJ.VervaekeS.WilloughbyT. (2008). Learning disabilities and risk-taking behavior in adolescents: A comparison of those with and without comorbid attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 41, 561–574.
59.
McNamaraJ. K.WilloughbyT.ChalmersH. (2005). Psychosocial status of adolescents with learning disabilities with and without comorbid attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 20, 234–244.
60.
McQuadeJ. D.HozaB. (2008). Peer problems in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Current status and future directions. Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews, 14, 320–324.
61.
MichielsD.GrietensH.OnghenaP.KuppensS. (2010). Perceptions of maternal and paternal attachment security in middle childhood: Links with positive parental affection and psychosocial adjustment. Early Child Development and Care, 180, 211–225.
62.
MikulincerM.ShaverP. R. (2007). Attachment in adulthood: Structure, dynamics, and change. New York: Guilford Press.
63.
MoosR. H.CronkiteR. L.BillingsA. G.FinneyJ. W. (1987). Revised health and daily living form manual. Palo Alto, CA: Veterans Administration and Stanford University Medical Centers.
64.
MorettiM.ObsuthI. (2009). Effectiveness of an attachment-focused manualized intervention for parents of teens at risk for aggressive behavior: The connect program. Journal of Adolescence, 32, 1347–1357.
65.
MrugS.MolinaB. S. G.HozaB.GerdesA. C.HinshawS. P.HechtmanL.ArnoldL. E. (2012). Peer rejection and friendships in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Contributions to long-term outcomes. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 40, 1013–1026.
66.
MufsonL.DortaK. P.WickramaratneP.NomuraY.OlfsonM.WeissmanM. M. (2004). A randomized effectiveness trial of interpersonal psychotherapy for depressed adolescents. Archives of General Psychiatry, 61, 577–584.
67.
MurisP.MeestersC.van den BergS. (2003). Internalizing and externalizing problems and correlates of self-reported attachment style and perceived parental rearing in normal adolescents. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 12, 171–183.
68.
MurrayC.GreenbergM. T. (2001). Relationships with teachers and bonds with school: Social emotional adjustment correlates for children with and without disabilities. Psychology in the Schools, 38, 25–41.
69.
MurrayC.GreenbergM. T. (2006). Examining the importance of social relationships and social contexts in the lives of children with high incidence disabilities. Journal of Special Education, 39, 220–233.
70.
MurrayC.PiantaR. (2007). The importance of teacher-students relationships for adolescents with high incidence disabilities. Theory Into Practice, 46, 105–112.
71.
National Research Council and the Institute for Medicine. (2004). Engaging schools: Fostering high school students’ motivation to learn. Washington, DC: National Academic Press.
72.
NelsonJ. M. (2013). Self-concept of college students with ADHD: Discordance between self- and parent-reports. Journal of Attention Disorders, 17, 163–170.
73.
NelsonJ. M.HarwoodH. (2011a). Learning disabilities and anxiety: A meta-analysis. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 44, 3–17.
74.
NelsonJ. M.HarwoodH. (2011b). A meta-analysis of parent and teacher reports of depression among students with learning disabilities: Evidence for the importance of multi-informant assessment. Psychology in the Schools, 48, 371–384.
75.
ParkerJ. G.AsherS. R. (1993). Friendship and friendship quality in middle childhood. Developmental Psychology, 29, 611–621.
76.
PiantaR. C. (1999). Enhancing relationships between children and teachers. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
77.
ReddyR.RhodesJ. E.MulhallP. (2003). The influence of teacher support on students’ adjustment in the middle school years: A latent growth curve study. Development and Psychopathology, 15, 119–138.
78.
Richaud de MinziM. C. (2006). Loneliness and depression in middle and late childhood: Its relationship to attachment and parental styles. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 167, 189–210.
79.
RonenT. (1997). Cognitive-developmental therapy with children. Chichester, UK: John Wiley.
80.
ShanyM.LachmanD.ShalemZ.BahatA.ZeigerT. (2006). “Aleph-Taph”: A test for the diagnosis of reading and writing disabilities, based on national Israeli norms. Tel Aviv, Israel: Yesod.
81.
SilkJ. S.DavisS.McMakinD. L.DahlR. E.ForbesE. E. (2012). Why do anxious children become depressed teenagers? The role of social evaluative threat and reward processing. Psychological Medicine, 42, 2095–2107.
82.
SoenensB.VansteenkisteM.GoossensL.DuriezB.NiemiecC. P. (2008). The intervening role of relational aggression between psychological control and friendship quality. Social Development, 17, 661–681.
83.
SolesT.HollyS. (2007). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in the LD field: A review. Thalamus, 25(1), 47–53.
84.
SwansonH. L.HarrisK.GrahamS. (Eds.). (2013). Handbook of learning disabilities (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press.
85.
ThorellL. B.RydellA.- M.BohlinG. (2012). Parent-child attachment and executive functioning in relation to ADHD symptoms in middle childhood. Attachment and Human Development, 14, 517–532.
86.
TrentacostaC. J.HydeL. W.ShawD. S.DishionT. J.GardnerF.WilsonM. (2008). The relations among cumulative risk, parenting, and behavior problems during early childhood. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49, 1211–1219.
87.
van IjzendoornM. H.SagiA.LambermonM. W. E. (1992). The multiple caretaker paradox: Data from Holland and Israel. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 57, 5–24.
88.
VaughnS.ElbaumB. (1999). The self-concept and friendships of student with learning disabilities: A developmental perspective. In GallimoreR. (Ed.), Developmental perspectives on children with high-incidence disabilities (pp. 81–107). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
89.
VerschuerenK.MarcoenA. (2005). Perceived security of attachment to mother and father: Developmental differences and relation to self-worth and peer relation at school. In KernsK. A.RichardsonR. A. (Eds.), Attachment in middle school (pp. 212–230). New York: Guilford Press.
90.
WangJ.WangX. (2012). Structural equation modeling: Applications using Mplus (3rd ed.). Chichester, UK: John Wiley.
WehmeierP. M.SchachtA.BarkleyR. A. (2010). Social and emotional impairment in children and adolescents with ADHD and the impact on quality of life. Journal of Adolescent Health, 46, 209–217.
93.
WeimerB. L.KernsK. A.OldenburgC. M. (2004). Adolescents’ interactions with a best friend: Association with attachment style. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 88, 102–120.
94.
WeissR. S. (1998). A taxonomy of relationships. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 15, 671–683.
95.
WhiteR.RenkK. (2012). Externalizing behavior problems during adolescence: An ecological perspective. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 21, 158–171.
96.
WienerJ.SchneiderB. (2002). A multisource exploration of the friendship patterns of children with and without learning disabilities. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 3, 127–141.
97.
ZilberN.AuerbachJ.LernerY. (1994). Israeli norms for the Achenbach child behavior checklist: Comparison of clinically referred and non-referred children. Israel Journal of Psychiatry and Related Science, 31(1), 5–12.
