Relationships between attention/executive functions and language learning were investigated in students in Grades 4 to 9 (N = 88) with and without specific learning disabilities (SLDs) in multiword syntax in oral and written language (OWL LD), word reading and spelling (dyslexia), and subword letter writing (dysgraphia). Prior attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) diagnosis was correlated only with impaired handwriting. Parental ratings of inattention, but not hyperactivity, correlated with measures of written language but not oral language. Sustaining switching attention correlated with writing the alphabet from memory in manuscript or by keyboard and fast copying of a sentence with all the letters of the alphabet. Multiple regressions based on a principal component for composites of multiple levels of language (subword, word, and syntax/text) showed that measures of attention and executive function involving language processing rather than ratings of attention and executive function not specifically related to language accounted for more variance and identified more unique predictors in the composite outcomes for oral language, reading, and writing systems. Inhibition related to focused attention uniquely predicted outcomes for the oral language system. Findings are discussed in reference to implications for assessing and teaching students who are still learning to pay attention to heard and written language and self-regulate their language learning during middle childhood and adolescence.
AltemeierL.AbbottR.BerningerV. (2008). Executive functions for reading and writing in typical literacy development and dyslexia. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 30, 588–606. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13803390701562818
2.
AmtmannD.AbbottR.BerningerV. (2008). Identifying and predicting classes of response to explicit, phonological spelling instruction during independent composing. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 41, 218–234.
3.
ArringtonC. N.KulesczP.FrancisD.FletcherJ.BarnesM. (2014). The contribution of attentional control and working memory to reading comprehension and decoding. Scientific Studies of Reading, 18, 325–346. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2014.902461
4.
BarnettA.HendersonL.ScheibB.SchulzC. (2007). Detailed Assessment of Speed of Handwriting (DASH) copy best and fast. London, UK: Pearson.
5.
BerningerV. (2000). Development of language by hand and its connections to language by ear, mouth, and eye. Topics in Language Disorders, 20, 65–84.
6.
BerningerV. (2009). Highlights of programmatic, interdisciplinary research on writing. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 24, 68–79.
7.
BerningerV. W. (2015). Interdisciplinary frameworks for schools: Best professional practices for serving the needs of all students. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/14437-002
8.
BerningerV.AbbottD. (2010). Listening comprehension, oral expression, reading comprehension and written expression: Related yet unique language systems in grades 1, 3, 5, and 7. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102, 635–651.
9.
BerningerV.AbbottR. (2013). Children with dyslexia who are and are not gifted in verbal reasoning. Gifted Child Quarterly, 57, 223–233. doi:10.1177/0016986213500342
10.
BerningerV.RichardsT.AbbottR. (2015). Differential diagnosis of dysgraphia, dyslexia, and OWL LD: Behavioral and neuroimaging evidence. Reading and Writing, 28, 1119–1153.
11.
BerningerV.RijlaarsdamG.FayolM. (2012). Mapping research questions about translation to methods, measures, and models. In FayolM.AlamargotD.BerningerV. (Eds.), Translation of thought to written text while composing: Advancing theory, knowledge, methods, and applications (pp. 27–67). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
12.
BerningerV.RutbergJ.AbbottR.GarciaN.Anderson-YoungstromM.BrooksA.FultonC. (2006). Tier 1 and Tier 2 early intervention for handwriting and composing. Journal of School Psychology, 44, 3–30.
13.
BerningerV.SwansonH. L.GriffinW. (2014). Understanding developmental and learning disabilities within functional-systems frameworks: Building on the contributions of J. P. Das. In PapadopoulosT.ParrillaR.KirbyJ. (Eds.), Cognition, intelligence, and achievement (pp. 397–418). New York, NY: Elsevier.
14.
BerningerV.WolfB. (2015). Teaching students with dyslexia, dysgraphia, OWL LD, and dyscalculia: Lessons from science and teaching for all teachers (2nd ed.). Baltimore, MD: Brookes.
15.
BlairC.RazzaR. P. (2007). Relating effortful control, executive function, and false belief understanding to emerging math and literacy ability in kindergarten. Child Development, 78, 647–663.
16.
BowersP.WolfM. (1993). Theoretical links between naming speed, precise timing mechanisms, and orthographic skill in dyslexia. Reading and Writing, 5, 69–85.
17.
BullR.EspyK. A.WiebeS. A. (2008). Short-term memory, working memory, and executive functioning in preschoolers: Longitudinal predictors of mathematical achievement at 7 years. Developmental Neuropsychology, 33, 205–228.
18.
ButlerSillimanE. R. (Eds.). (2002). Speaking, reading, and writing in students with language and learning disabilities: New paradigms for research and practice. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
19.
CainOakhillH. (Eds.). (2007). Children’s comprehension problems in oral and written language: A cognitive perspective. New York, NY: Guilford.
20.
CarlisleJ. F. (2003). Morphology matters in learning to read: A commentary. Reading Psychology, 24, 291–322.
21.
CattsH. W.KamhiA. G. (Eds.). (2005). The connections between language and reading disabilities. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
22.
DanemanM.CarpenterP. A. (1980). Individual differences in working memory and reading. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 19, 450–466.
23.
DasJ. P.KarB. C.ParrilaR. K. (1996). Cognitive planning. New Delhi, India: Sage.
24.
DasJ. P.KirbyJ. R.JarmanR. F. (1975). Simultaneous and successive syntheses: An alternative model for cognitive abilities. Psychological Bulletin, 82, 87–103.
25.
DasJ. P.NaglieriJ. A.KirbyJ. R. (1994). Assessment of cognitive processes. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
26.
DelisD.KaplanE.KramerJ. (2003). Delis–Kaplan Executive Function System. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corp.
27.
EhriL. (1980a). The development of orthographic images. In FrithU. (Ed.), Cognitive processes in spelling (pp. 311–338). London, UK: Academic Press.
28.
EhriL. (1980b). The role of orthographic images in learning printed words. In KavanaughJ. F.VenezkyR. (Eds.), Orthographic reading and dyslexia (pp. 307–332). Baltimore, MD: University Park Press.
29.
EhriL. C. (2014). Orthographic mapping in the acquisition of sight word reading, spelling memory, and vocabulary learning. Scientific Studies of Reading, 18, 5–21.
HayesJ. R.BerningerV. (2014). Cognitive processes in writing: A framework. In ArféB.DockrellJ.BerningerV. (Eds.), Writing development and instruction in children with hearing, speech, and language disorders (pp. 3–15). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
32.
HayesJ. R.FlowerL. S. (1980). Identifying the organization of writing processes. In GreggL. W.SteinbergE. R. (Eds.), Cognitive processes in writing (pp. 3–30). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
33.
KimY. S.PhillipsB. (2013). Cognitive correlates of listening comprehension. Reading Research Quarter, 49, 269–281.
34.
LibermanA. (1999). The reading researcher and the reading teacher need the right theory of speech. Scientific Studies of Reading, 3, 95–111.
35.
MatherN.RobertsR.HammillD.AllenE. (2008). Test of Orthographic Competence (TOC). Austin, TX: PRO-ED.
36.
McCandlessS.O’LaughlinL. (2007). The clinical utility of the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF) in the diagnosis of ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders, 10, 381–389.
37.
MiyakeA.FriedmanN.EmersonM.WitzkiA.HowerterA.WagerT. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41, 49–100.
38.
MorrisR.StuebingK.FletcherJ.ShaywitzS.LyonG. R.ShakweilerD.KatzL.. . . ShaywitzB. A. (1998). Subtypes of reading disability: Variability around a phonological core. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90, 347–373.
39.
NagyW.BerningerV.AbbottR. (2006). Contributions of morphology beyond phonology to literacy outcomes of upper elementary and middle school students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98, 134–147.
40.
NelsonN. W. (2010). Language and literacy disorders: Infancy through adolescence. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
41.
NelsonN. W.Helm-EstabrooksN.HotzG.PlanteE. (2011). Test of Integrated Language and Literacy Skills (TILLS). Baltimore, MD: Brookes.
42.
NiedoJ.AbbottR.BerningerV. (2014). Predicting levels of reading and writing achievement in typically developing, English-speaking 2nd and 5th graders. Learning and Individual Differences, 32, 54–68. doi10.1016/j.lindif.2014.03.013NIHMS580076
43.
NippoldM.ScottC. (2010). Expository discourse in children, adolescents and adults: Development and disorders. New York, NY: Psychology Press.
44.
NunesT.BryantP. (2006). Improving literacy by teaching morphemes. Improving Learning Series. New York, NY: Routledge.
OlsonR.ForsbergH.WiseB.RackJ. (1994). Measurement of word recognition, orthographic, and phonological skills. In LyonG. R. (Ed.), Frames of reference for the assessment of learning disabilities (pp. 243–277). Baltimore, MD: Brookes.
47.
Pearson. (2009). Wechsler Individual Achievement Test (3rd ed.). San Antonio, TX: Author.
48.
PosnerM.RothbartM. (2007). Educating the human brain. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
49.
ReA. M.CornoldiC. (2010). Expressive writing difficulties of ADHD children: When good declarative knowledge is not sufficient. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 25, 315–323.
50.
RichardsT.AylwardE.BerningerV.FieldK.ParsonsA.RichardsA.NagyW. (2006). Individual fMRI activation in orthographic mapping and morpheme mapping after orthographic or morphological spelling treatment in child dyslexics. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 19, 56–86.
51.
RichardsT.AylwardE.RaskindW.AbbottR.FieldK.ParsonsA.. . . BerningerV. (2006). Converging evidence for triple word form theory in children with dyslexia. Developmental Neuropsychology, 30, 547–589.
52.
ScottC. (2009). A case for the sentence in reading comprehension. Language, Speech and Hearing Services in Schools, 40, 184–191.
53.
ScottC.NelsonN. (2009). Sentence combining: Assessment and intervention applications. Language and Learning Education, 16, 14–20.
54.
SemelE.WiigE. H.SecordW. A. (2003). Clinical Evaluations of Language Fundamentals 4th edition: Examiner’s manual. San Antonio, TX: Harcourt Assessment.
SillimanE. R.Huntley BahrR.PetersM. L. (2006). Spelling patterns in preadolescents with atypical language skills: Phonological, morphological, and orthographic factors. Developmental Neuropsychology, 29, 93–123.
57.
StahlS.NagyW. (2006). Teaching word meaning. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
58.
SwansonH. L. (1993a). Executive processing in learning disabled readers. Intelligence, 17, 117–149.
59.
SwansonH. L. (1993b). Working memory in learning disability subgroups. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 56, 87–114.
60.
SwansonH. L. (1995). Using the Cognitive Processing Test to assess ability: Development of a dynamic assessment. School Psychology Review, 42, 672–693.
61.
SwansonH. L. (1996). Swanson Cognitive Processing Test. Austin, TX: PRO-ED.
62.
SwansonH. L. (1999). Reading comprehension and working memory in learning disabled readers: Is the phonological loop more important than the executive system?Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 72, 1–31.
63.
SwansonH. L. (2006). Working memory and reading disabilities: Both phonological and executive processing deficits are important. In AllowayT.GathercoleS. (Eds.), Working memory and neurodevelopmental conditions (pp. 59–88). London, UK: Psychology Press.
64.
SwansonH. L.AshbakerM. (2000). Working memory, short-term memory, speech rate, word recognition, and reading comprehension in learning disabled readers: Does the executive system have a role?Intelligence, 28, 1–30.
65.
SwansonH. L.SiegelL. (2001). Learning disabilities as a working memory deficit. Issues in Education: Contributions of Educational Psychology, 7, 1–48.
66.
ThomsonJ.ChennaultB.AbbottR.RaskindW.RichardsT.AylwardE.BerningerV. (2005). Converging evidence for attentional influences on the orthographic word form in child dyslexics. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 18, 93–126.
67.
TopiakM.SorgeG.FloraD.ChenW.BanachuewskiT.BuitelaarJ.. . . FaraoneS. V. (2012). The hierarchical factor model of ADHD: Invariant across age and national groupings?Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 53, 292–303.
68.
TorgesenJ.WagnerR.RashotteC. (1999). Test of Word Reading Efficiency. Austin, TX: PRO-ED.
69.
VenezkyR. (1970). The structure of English orthography. The Hague, Netherlands: Mouton.
70.
WagnerR.TorgesenJ. (1987). The nature of phonological processing and its causal role in the acquisition of reading skills. Psychological Bulletin, 101, 192–212.
71.
WagnerR. K.TorgesenJ. K.RashotteC. A. (1999). The Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing. Austin, TX: PRO-ED.
72.
WechslerD. (2003). Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (4th ed.). San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corp.
73.
WilkinsonL. C.SillimanE. R. (2012). Academic language. In WilkinsonL. C.SillimanE. R. (Eds.), Routledge education companion. London, UK: Routledge.
74.
WillicuttE.NiggJ.PenningtonB.SolantoM.RohdeL.TannockR.. . . LaheyB. B. (2012). Validity of DSM-IV attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptom dimensions and subtypes. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 121, 991–1010.
75.
WolfM. (1986). Rapid alternating stimulus naming in the developmental dyslexias. Brain and Language, 27, 360–379.
