Methylphenidate (MPH) often ameliorates attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) behavioral dysfunction according to indirect informant reports and rating scales. The standard of care behavioral MPH titration approach seldom includes direct neuropsychological or academic assessment data to determine treatment efficacy. Documenting “cool” executive-working memory (EWM) and “hot” self-regulation (SR) neuropsychological impairments could aid in differential diagnosis of ADHD subtypes and determining cognitive and academic MPH response. In this study, children aged 6 to 16 with ADHD inattentive type (IT; n = 19) and combined type (n = 33)/hyperactive-impulsive type (n = 4) (CT) participated in double-blind placebo-controlled MPH trials with baseline and randomized placebo, low MPH dose, and high MPH dose conditions. EWM/ SR measures and behavior ratings/classroom observations were rank ordered separately across conditions, with nonparametric randomization tests conducted to determine individual MPH response. Participants were subsequently grouped according to their level of cool EWM and hot SR circuit dysfunction. Robust cognitive and behavioral MPH response was achieved for children with significant baseline EWM/SR impairment, yet response was poor for those with adequate EWM/ SR baseline performance. Even for strong MPH responders, the best dose for neuropsychological functioning was typically lower than the best dose for behavior. Findings offer one possible explanation for why long-term academic MPH treatment gains in ADHD have not been realized. Implications for academic achievement and medication titration practices for children with behaviorally diagnosed ADHD will be discussed.
Abikoff, H., Hechtman, L., Klein, R.G., Weiss, G., Fleiss, K., Etcovich, J., . . . Pollack, S. ( 2004). Symptomatic improvement in children with ADHD treated with long-term methylphenidate and multimodal psychosocial treatment . Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 43, 802-811.
2.
Achenbach, T.M. ( 1991). Integrative guide for the 1991 CBCL/4-18, YSR, and TRF profiles. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry.
3.
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., Text Rev.). Washington, DC: Author.
4.
Arnsten, A.F. ( 2006a). Fundamentals of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Circuits and pathways. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry , 67(8), 7-12.
Balthazor, M.J., Wagner, R.K., & Pelham, W.E. ( 1991). The specificity of the effects of stimulant medication on classroom learning-related measures of cognitive processing for attention deficit disorder children. Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 19, 35-52.
8.
Barkley, R.A. ( 1990). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A handbook for diagnosis and treatment. New York, NY: Guilford.
9.
Barkley, R.A. ( 1997). ADHD and the nature of self control. New York, NY: Guilford.
10.
Barkley, R.A. ( 2006). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. In D. A. Wolfe & E. J. Mash (Eds.), Behavioral and emotional disorders in adolescents: Nature, assessment, and treatment (pp. 91-152). New York, NY : Guilford.
11.
Barkley, R.A., DuPaul, G.J., & McMurray, M.B. (1991). Attention deficit disorder with and without hyperactivity: Clinical response to three dose levels of methylphenidate. Pediatrics, 87, 519-531.
12.
Bedard, A.C., Martinussen, R., Ickowicz, A., & Tannock, R. ( 2004). Methylphenidate improves visual-spatial memory in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 43, 260-268.
13.
Benedetto-Nash, E., & Tannock, R. ( 1999). Math computation, error patterns and stimulant effects in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Attention Disorders, 3, 121-134.
14.
Berman, T., Douglas, V.I., & Barr, R.G. ( 1999). Effects of methylphenidate on complex cognitive processing in attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 108, 90-105.
15.
Berridge, C.W., Devilbiss, D.M., Andrzejewski, M.E., Arnsten, A.F., Kelley, A.E., Schmeichel, . . . Spencer, R.C. ( 2006). Methylphenidate preferentially increases catecholamine neurotransmission with in prefrontal cortex at low doses that enhance cognitive function. Biological Psychiatry, 60, 1111-1120. Biederman, J., Faraone, S.V., & Lapey, K. ( 1992). Comorbidity of diagnosis in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. In G. Weiss (Ed.), Child and adolescent psychiatry clinics of North America: Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (pp. 335-360). Philadelphia, PA : Saunders.
16.
Biederman, J., Monuteaux, M.C., Doyle, A.E., Seidman, L.J., Wilens, T.E., Ferraro, F., . . . Faraone, S.V. ( 2004). Impact of executive function deficits and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) on academic outcomes in children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72, 757-766.
17.
Brown, R.T., & LaRosa, A. (2002). Recent developments in the pharmacotherapy of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Professional Psychology, Research and Practice, 33, 591-595.
18.
Bryan, K.L., & Hale, J.B. ( 2001). Differential effects of left and right cerebral vascular accidents on language competency. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 7, 655-664. Capano, L., Minden, D., Chen, S.X., Schachar, R.J., & Ickowicz, A. ( 2008). Mathematical learning disorder in school-age children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 53, 392-399.
19.
Castellanos, F.X., Sonuga-Barke, E.J.S., Milham, M.P., & Tannock, R. ( 2006). Characterizing cognition in ADHD: Beyond executive dysfunction . Trends in Cognitive Science, 10, 117-123.
20.
Chacko, A., Pelham, W.E., Gnagy, E.M., Greiner, A., Vallano, G.Bukstein, O., & Rancurello, M. (2005). Stimulant medication effects in a summer treatment program among young children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 44, 249-257.
21.
Chhabildas, N., Pennington, B.F., & Willcutt, E.G. (2001). A comparison of neuropsychological profiles of the DSM-IV subtypes of ADHD. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 29, 529-540.
22.
Conners, K. ( 1997). Conners’ Parent and Teacher Rating Scale- Revised. North Tonawanda, NY: Multi-Health Systems.
Decker, S.L., Hill, S.K., & Dean, R.S. ( 2007). Evidence of construct similarity in executive functions and fluid reasoning abilities. International Journal of Neuroscience , 117, 735-748.
25.
Demaray, M.K., Elting, J., & Schaefer, K. ( 2003). Assessment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): A comparative evaluation of five commonly used, published rating scales . Psychology in the Schools, 40, 341-361.
26.
Denckla, M.B. ( 1996). Biological correlates of learning and attention: What is relevant to learning disability and attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder ? Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics , 17, 114-119.
27.
Dickstein, S.G., Bannon, K., Castellanos, F.X., & Milham, M.P. ( 2006). The neural correlates of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: An ALE meta-analysis. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47, 1051-1062.
28.
Dommett, E.J., Henderson, E.L., Westwell, M.S., & Greenfield, S.A. (2008). Methylphenidate amplifies long-term plasticity in the hippocampus via noradrenergic mechanisms. Learning & Memory, 15, 580-586.
29.
Douglas, V.I., Barr, R.G., Desilets, J., & Sherman, E. ( 1995). Do high doses of stimulants impair flexible thinking in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder? Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 877-885.
30.
DuPaul, G.J. ( 2006). Academic achievement in children with ADHD. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry , 45, 766-767.
31.
DuPaul, G.J., & Barkley, R.A. ( 1992). Situational variability of attention problems: Psychometric properties of the Revised Home and School Situations Questionnaires . Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 21, 178-188.
32.
DuPaul, G.J., Rapport, M.D., & Perriello, L.M. (1991). Teacher ratings of academic skills: The development of the Academic Performance Rating Scale. School Psychology Review, 20, 284-300.
33.
DuPaul, G.J., & Stoner, G. ( 2004). ADHD in the schools: Assessment and intervention strategies (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford.
34.
Engert, V., & Pruessner, J.C. (2008). Dopaminergic and noradrenergic contributions to functionality in ADHD: The role of methylphenidate. Current Neuropharmacology, 6, 322-328.
35.
Evans, S.W., Smith, B.H., Gnagy, E.M., Pelham, W.E., Bukstein, O., Greiner, A.R., . . . Baron-Myak, C. (2001). Dose-response effects of methylphenidate on ecologically valid measures of academic performance and classroom behavior in adolescents with ADHD. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 9, 163-175.
36.
Fabiano, G.A., Pelham, Jr., W.E., Coles, E.K., Gnagy, E.M., Chronis-Tuscano, A., & O’Connor, B.C. (2009). A meta-analysis of behavioural treatments treatments for attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder . Clinical Psychology Review, 29, 129-140.
37.
Figner, B., Mackinlay, R.J., Wilkening, F., & Weber, E.U. ( 2009). Affective and deliberative processes in risky choice: Age differences in risk taking in the Columbia Card Task. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition , 35, 709-730.
38.
Floresco, S.B., & Magyar, O. ( 2006). Mesocortical dopamine modulation of executive functions: Beyond working memory. Psychopharmacology, 188, 567-585.
39.
Frankenberger, W., & Cannon, C. ( 1999). Effects of Ritalin on academic achievement from first to fifth grade. International Journal of Disability, Development, and Education, 46, 199-221.
40.
Geurts, H.M., Verte, S., Oosterlaan, J., Roeyers, H., & Sergeant, J.A. (2005). ADHD subtypes: Do they differ in their executive functioning profile? Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 20, 457-477.
41.
Gimpel, G.A., Collett, B.R., Veeder, M.A., Gifford, J.A., Sneddon, P., Bushman, B., . . . Odell, J.D. ( 2005). Effects of stimulant medication on cognitive performance of children with ADHD. Clinical Pediatrics, 44, 405-411.
42.
Golden, J.C. ( 1978). Stroop Color and Word Test. Chicago, IL: Stoelting.
43.
Gorman, E.B., Klorman, R., Thatcher, J.E., & Borgstedt, A.D. (2006). Effects of methylphenidate on subtypes of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 45, 808-816.
44.
Greenhill, L.L., Swanson, J.M., Vitiello, B., Davies, M., Clevenger, W., Wu, M., . . . Wigal, T. ( 2001). Impairment and deportment responses to different methylphenidate doses in children with ADHD: The MTA titration trial. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 180-187.
45.
Goldstein, S., & Naglieri, J. ( 2008). The school neuropsychology of ADHD: Theory, assessment, and intervention. Psychology in the Schools, 45, 859-874.
46.
Hale, J.B. ( 1997). Development of alternate forms of the Hale Cancellation Task and Trail-Making Test for use in ADHD medication trials. Unpublished manuscript, Rochester Institute of Technology.
47.
Hale, J.B., Blaine-Halperin, D., & Beakley, K. ( 2007, February). Executive impairment determines ADHD response to methylphenidate treatment. Paper presented at the 35th Annual Meeting of the International Neuropsychological Society , Portland, OR.
48.
Hale, J.B., & Fiorello, C.A. (2004). School neuropsychology: A practitioner’s handbook. New York, NY: Guilford.
49.
Hale, J.B., Fiorello, C.A., & Brown, L. ( 2005). Determining medication treatment effects using teacher ratings and classroom observations of children with ADHD: Does neuropsychological impairment matter? Educational and Child Psychology, 22, 39-61.
50.
Hale, J.B., Hoeppner, J.B., DeWitt, M.B., Coury, D.L., Ritacco, D.G., & Trommer, B. ( 1998). Evaluating medication response in ADHD. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 31, 595-607.
51.
Hale, J.B., Mulligan, C.A., & Simmerman, K.L. (2006, February). Quantifying medication response in ADHD: Does neuropsychological impairment matter? Poster presentation at the 34th Annual Meeting of theInternational Neuropsychological Society, Boston, MA.
52.
Hale, J.B., Reddy, L.A., Decker, S.L., Thompson, R., Henzel, J., Teodori, A., . . . Denckla, M. B. (2009). Development and validation of an executive function and behavior rating screening battery sensitive to ADHD. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 1, 1-16.
53.
Hale, J.B., Reddy, L.A., Wilcox, G., McLaughlin, A., Hain, L., Stern, A., . . . Eusebio, E. ( 2009). Assessment and intervention for children with ADHD and other frontal-striatal circuit disorders. In D. C. Miller (Ed.), Best practices in school neuropsychology: Guidelines for effective practice, assessment and evidence-based interventions (pp. 225-280). New York, NY: John Wiley.
54.
Heaton, R.K., Chelune, G.J., Talley, J.L., Kay, G.G., & Curtiss, G. ( 1993). Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) manual revised and expanded. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
55.
Hoeppner, J.B., Hale, J.B., Bradley, A., Byrns, M., Coury, D.L., & Trommer, B.L. ( 1997). A clinical protocol for determining methylphenidate dosage levels in ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders, 2, 19-30.
56.
Hood, J., Baird, G., Rankin, P.M., & Isaacs, E. ( 2005). Immediate effects of methylphenidate on cognitive attention skills of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder . Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 47, 408-414.
57.
Horrigan, J.P., & Barnhill, L.J. (2000). Low-dose amphetamine salts and adult attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 61, 414-417.
58.
Houghton, S., Douglas, G., West, J., Whiting, K., Wall, M., Langsford, S., . . . Carroll, A. ( 1999). Differential patterns of executive function in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder according to gender and subtype . Journal of Child Neurology, 14, 801-805.
59.
Huang, Y., Chao, C., Wu, Y., Chen, Y., & Chen, Y. ( 2007). Acute effects of methylphenidate on performance during the Test of Variables of Attention in children with attention deficit/ hyperactivity disorder. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences , 61, 219-225.
60.
Isles, A.R., & Humby, T. ( 2006). Modes of imprinted gene action in learning disability . Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 50, 318-325.
61.
Jensen, P.S., Arnold, L.E., Swanson, J.M., Vitiello, B., Abikoff, H.B., Greenhill, L.L. . . . Hur, K. ( 2007). 3-year follow up of the NIMH MTA study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry , 46, 989-1002.
62.
Johansen, E.B., Aase, H., Meyer, A., & Sagvolden, T. ( 2002). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) behaviour explained by dysfunctioning reinforcement and extinction processes . Behavioural Brain Research, 130(1-2), 37-45.
63.
Julien, R.M. ( 2005). A primer of drug action. New York, NY: Worth Publishers.
64.
Kelly, C., Sonuga-Barke, E.J.S., Scheres, A., & Castellanos, F.X. (2007). Functional neuroimaging of the reward and motivational pathway in ADHD. In M. Fitzgerald, M. Bellgrove, & M. Gill (Eds.), Handbook of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. (pp. 209-235). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
65.
Kemner, C., Jonkman, L.M., Kenemans, J.L., Bocker, K.B., Verbaten, M.N., & Engeland, H. ( 2004). Sources of auditory selective attention and the effects of methylphenidate in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder . Biological Psychiatry, 55, 776-778.
66.
Keulers, E.H.H., Hendriksen, J.G.M., Feron, F.J.M., Wassenberg, R., Wuisman-Frerker, M.G.F., Jolles, J., & Vles, J.S. ( 2006). Methylphenidate improves reading performance in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and comorbid dyslexia: An unblinded clinical trial. European Journal of Paediatric Neurology, 11(1), 21-28.
67.
Kobel, M., Bechtel, N., Weber, P., Specht, K., Klarhofer, M., Scheffler, K., . . . Penner, I.K. ( 2008). Effects of methylphenidate on working memory functioning in children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. European Journal of Paediatric Neurology, 13, 516-523.
68.
Konrad, K., Gunther, T., Hanisch, C., & Herpertz-Dahlmann, B. (2004). Differential effects of methylphenidate on attentional functions in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 43, 191-198.
69.
Kuhle, H., Kinkebur, J., Andes, K., Heidorn, F., Zeyer, S., Rautzenberg, P., . . . Jansen, F. ( 2007). Self-regulation of visual attention and facial expression of emotions in ADHD children. Journal of Attention Disorders , 10, 350-358.
70.
Lajoie, G., Anderson, V., Anderson, P., Tucker, A.R., Robertson, I.H., & Manly, T. ( 2005). Effects of methylphenidate on attention skills in children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Brain Impairment , 6(1), 21-32.
71.
Langleben, D.D., Monterosso, L., Elman, I., Ash, B., Krikorian, G., & Austin, G. ( 2006). Effects of methylphenidate on Stroop Color-Word task performance in children with attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder . Psychiatry Research, 141, 315-320.
72.
Lichter, D. G., & Cummings, J. L. (Eds.). (2001). Frontal-subcortical circuits in psychiatric and neurological disorders. New York, NY : Guilford.
73.
Liotti, M., & Mayberg, H.S. ( 2001). The role of functional neuroimaging in the neuropsychology of depression. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology , 23, 121-136.
74.
Liotti, M., Pliszka, S.R., Perez, R., Glahn, D.C., & Semrud-Clikeman, M. (2008). Electrophysiological correlates of response inhibition in children and adolescents with ADHD: Influence of gender, age, and previous treatment history. Psychophysiology , 44, 936-948.
75.
Lufi, D., Parish-Plass, J., & Gai, E. ( 1997). The effect of methylphenidate on the cognitive and personality functioning of ADHD children. Journal of Psychiatry and Related Services, 34, 200-209.
76.
May, R.B., Masson, M.E.J., Hunter, M.A., & Wells, J. ( 1990). NPStat 3.01 [Computer software]. Victoria, Canada: University of Victoria.
77.
Mayes, S.D., & Calhoun, S.L. ( 2006). Frequency of reading, math, and writing disabilities in children with clinical disorders. Learning and Individual Differences, 16, 145-157.
78.
McInnes, A., Bedard, A.C., Hogg-Johnson, S., & Tannock, R., (2007). Preliminary evidence of beneficial effects of methylphenidate on listening comprehension in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology , 17, 35-49.
79.
McKenzie, I., & Wurr, C. ( 2004). Diagnosing and treating attentional difficulties: A nationwide survey. Archives of Diseases in Childhood, 89, 913-916.
80.
Milich, R., Balentine, A.C., & Lynam, D.R. ( 2001). ADHD combined type and ADHD predominantly inattentive type are distinct and unrelated disorders. Clinical Psychology, Science and Practice, 8, 463-488.
81.
Newby, R.F. ( 1999). Wisconsin Selective Reminding Test. Milwaukee, WI: Medical College of Wisconsin.
82.
Nigg, J.T., Blaskey, L.G., Huang-Pollock, C.L., & Rappley, M.D. ( 2002). Neuropsychological executive functions and DSM-IV ADHD subtypes. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 41, 59-66.
83.
Northup, J., Fusilier, I., Swanson, V., Roane, H., & Borrero, J. ( 1997). An evaluation of methylphenidate as a potential establishing operation for some common classroom reinforcers. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 30, 615-625.
84.
Ozonoff, S., & Jensen, J. ( 1999). Specific executive function profiles in three neurodevelopmental disorders. Journal of Autism & Developmental Disorders , 29, 171-177.
85.
Pearson, D.A., Santos, C.W., Casat, C.D., Lane, D.M., Jerger, S.W., Roache, J.D., . . . Cleveland, L.A. (2004). Treatment effects of methylphenidate on cognitive functioning in children with mental retardation and ADHD. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 43, 677-685.
86.
Pearson, D.A., Santos, C.W., Roache, J.D., Casat, C.D., Loveland, K.A., Lachar, D., . . . Cleveland, L.A. (2003). Treatment effects of methylphenidate on behavioral adjustment in children with mental retardation and ADHD. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 42, 209-216.
87.
Pelham, W.E., & Gnagy, E.M. ( 1999). Psychosocial and combined treatments for ADHD . Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews, 5, 225-236.
88.
Pennington, B.F., & Ozonoff, S. ( 1996). Executive functions and developmental psychopathology . Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 37, 51-87.
89.
Pietrzak, R.H., Mollica, C.M., Maruff, P., & Snyder, P.J. ( 2006). Cognitive effects of immediate-release methylphenidate in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Neuroscience and Behavioral Reviews, 30, 1225-1245.
90.
Pliszka, S.R., Glahn, D.C., Semrud-Clikeman, M., Franklin, C., Perez, R., Xiong, J., & Liotti, M. ( 2006). Neuroimaging of inhibitory control areas in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder who were treatment naive or in long-term treatment. American Journal of Psychiatry, 163, 1052-1060.
91.
Pliszka, S.R., Liotti, M., Bailey, B.Y., Perez, R., Glahn, D., & Semrud-Clikeman, M. (2007). Electrophysiological effects of stimulant treatment on inhibitory control in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology , 17, 356-366.
92.
Polanczyk, G., & Rohde, L.A. ( 2007). Epidemiology of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder across the lifespan. Current Opinion in Psychiatry , 20, 386-392.
93.
Powers, R.L., Marks, D.J., Miller, C.J., Newcorn, J.H., & Halperin, J.M. (2008). Stimulant treatment in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder moderates adolescent academic outcome. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology , 18, 449-459.
94.
Reddy, L.A., & De Thomas, C. ( 2006). Assessment of ADHD children and adolescents. In S. R. Smith & L. Handler (Eds.), The clinical assessment of children and adolescents: A practitioner’s guide. (pp. 367-387). Mahwah, NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum.
95.
Reddy, L.A., & Hale, J. ( 2007). Inattentiveness. In A. R. Eisen (Ed.), Treating childhood behavioral and emotional disorders: A step-by-step evidence-based approach (pp. 156-211). New York, NY: Guilford.
96.
Reitan, R.M., & Wolfson, D. ( 1985). Neuroanatomy and neuropathology: A guide for neuropsychologists . Tucson, AZ: Neuropsychology Press .
97.
Reynolds, C.R., & Bigler, E.D. ( 1994). Test of memory and learning. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.
98.
Roiser, J.P., Cannon, D.M., Ghandi, S.K., Taylor-Tavares, J., Erickson, K., Wood, S., . . . Drevets, W. C. (2009). Hot and cold cognition in unmedicated depressed subjects with bipolar disorder. Bipolar Disorders , 11, 178-189.
99.
Rubia, K., Noorloos, J., Smith, A., Gunning, B., & Sergeant, J. ( 2003). Motor timing deficits in community and clinical boys with hyperactive behavior: The effect of methylphenidate on motor timing . Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 31, 301-313.
100.
Scheffler, R.M., Brown, T.T., Fulton, B.D., Hinshaw, S.P., Levine, P., & Stone, S. ( 2009). Positive association between attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder medication use and academic achievement during elementary school . Pediatrics, 123, 1273-1279.
101.
Semrud-Clikeman, M. ( 2005). Neuropsychological aspects for evaluating learning disabilities . Journal of Learning Disabilities, 38, 563-568.
102.
Semrud-Clikeman, M., Pliszka, S., & Liotti, M. ( 2008). Executive functioning in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Combined type with and without a stimulant medication history. Neuropsychology, 22, 329-340.
103.
Sergeant, J.A., Geurts, H., & Oosterlaan, J. (2002). How specific is a deficit in executive functioning for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder? Behavioural Brain Research, 130, 3-28.
104.
Smith, A.B., Taylor, E., Brammer, M., Toone, B., & Rubia, K. ( 2006). Task-specific hypoactivation in prefrontal and temporoparietal brain regions during motor inhibition and task switching in medication-naïve children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 163, 1044-1051.
105.
Solanto, M.V., Abikoff, H., Sonuga-Barke, E.J.S., Schachar, R.J., Logan, G.D., Wigal, T., . . . Turkel, E. ( 2001). The ecological validity of delay aversion and response inhibition as measures of impulsivity in AD/HD: A supplement to the NIMH multimodal treatment study of AD/HD. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology , 29, 215-228.
106.
Solanto, M.V., & Wender, E.H. ( 1989). Does methylphenidate constrict cognitive functioning ? Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 28, 897-902.
107.
Spencer, T.J. ( 2006). ADHD and comorbidity in childhood. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 67, 27-31.
108.
Sprague, R.L., & Sleator, E.K. ( 1976). Methylphenidate in hyper-kinetic children: Differences in dose effects on learning and social behavior. Science, 198, 1274-1276.
109.
Spreen, O., & Benton, A.L. ( 1977). Neurosensory center comprehensive examination for aphasia (NCCEA). Victoria, Canada: University of Victoria Neuropsychology Laboratory.
110.
Steinberg, L. ( 2008). A social neuroscience perspective on adolescent risk-taking . Developmental Review, 28, 78-106.
111.
Swanson, J.M., Cantwell, D., Lerner, M., McBurnett, K., & Hanna, G. ( 1991). Effects of stimulant medication on learning in children with ADHD. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 24, 219-230.
112.
Swanson, J.M., Flockhart, D., Udrea, D., Cantwell, D., Connor, D., & Williams, L. ( 1995). Clonodine in the treatment of ADHD: Questions about safety and efficacy. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology , 5, 301-304.
113.
Tamm, L., & Carlson, C.L. ( 2007). Task demands interact with single and combined effects of medication and contingencies on children with ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders, 10, 372-380.
114.
Tannock, R., Ickowicz, A., & Schachar, R. ( 1995). Differential effects of methylphenidate on working memory in ADHD children with and without comorbid anxiety. Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 886-896.
115.
Tannock, R., Schachar, R., & Logan, G. ( 1995). Methylphenidate and cognitive flexibility: Dissociated dose effects in hyperactive children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 23, 235-266.
116.
Teicher, M.H., Polcari, A., & McGreenery, C.E. (2008). Utility of objective measures of activity and attention in the assessment of therapeutic response to stimulants in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 18, 265-270.
117.
Trommer, B.L., Hoeppner, J.B., & Zecker, S.G. ( 1991). The go-no-go test in attention deficit disorder is sensitive to methylphenidate. Journal of Child Neurology , 6(Suppl.), S128-S131.
118.
Tucha, O., & Lange, K.W. ( 2001). Effects of methylphenidate on kinematic aspects of handwriting in hyperactive boys. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology , 29, 351-356.
119.
Tucha, O., & Lange, K.W. ( 2005). The effect of conscious control on handwriting in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Attention Disorders, 9, 323-332.
120.
Vance, A., Maruff, P., & Barnett, R. ( 2003). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, combined type: Better executive function performance with longer-term psychostimulant medication . Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry , 37, 570-576.
121.
Van der Oord, S., Prins, P.J., Oosterlaan, J., & Emmelkamp, P.M. (2008). Efficacy of methylphenidate, psychosocial treatments and their combination in school-aged children with ADHD: A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 28, 783-800.
122.
Volkow, N.D., Fowler, J.S., Wang, G.J., & Swanson, J.M. ( 2004). Dopamine in drug abuse and addiction: Results from imaging studies and treatment implications. Molecular Psychiatry, 9, 557-569.
123.
Waxmonsky, J., Pelham, W.E., Gnagy, E., Cummings, M.R., O’Connor, B., Majumdar, A., . . . Robb, J.A. ( 2008). The efficacy and tolerability of methylphenidate and behavior modification in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and severe mood dysregulation. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 18, 573-588.
124.
Weiss, M.D., Worling, D.E., & Wasdell, M.B. ( 2003). A chart review study of the inattentive and combined types of ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders, 7, 1-9.
125.
Willcutt, E.G., Doyle, A.E., Nigg, J.T., Faraone, S.V., & Pennington, B.F. (2005). Validity of the executive function theory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A meta-analytic review. Biological Psychiatry, 57, 1336-1346.
126.
Wilson, H.K., Cox, D.J., Merkel, R.L., Moore, M., & Coghill, D. ( 2006). Effect of extended release stimulant-based medications on neuropsychological functioning among adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Archives of Clinical Neuropyschology, 21, 797-807.
127.
Wodka, E.L., Mahone, E.M., Blanker, J.G., Gidley-Larson, J.C., Fotedar, S., Denckla, M.B., & Mostofsky, S.H. (2007). Evidence that response inhibition is a primary deficit in ADHD. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 29, 345-356.
128.
Zametkin, A.J., Nordahl, T.E., Gross, M., King, A.C., Semple, W.E., Rumsey, J., . . . Cohen, R.M. ( 1990). Cerebral glucose metabolism in adults with hyperactivity of childhood onset. New England Journal of Medicine, 323, 1361-1366.
129.
Zelazo, P.D., & Muller, U. ( 2002). Executive function in typical and atypical development . In U. Goswami (Ed.), Blackwell handbook of childhood cognitive development (pp. 445-469). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.
