The double-deficit hypothesis acknowledges both phonological processing deficits and serial naming speed deficits as two dimensions associated with reading disabilities. The purpose of this study was to examine these two dimensions of reading as they were related to the reading skills of 29 Spanish average readers and poor readers (mean age 9 years 7 months) who met the criteria for either single phonological deficit (PD), double deficit (DD), or no deficit. DD children were the slowest readers and had the weakest orthography processing skills. No significant differences were found between PD and DD groups on word and pseudoword reading. Word reading and reading comprehension skills were average or above average in the three studied groups. As in previous studies in transparent orthographies, word reading was not a salient problem for Spanish poor readers, whereas for the DD group, reading speed and orthographic recognition skills were significantly affected.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Badian, N.A. (1997). Dyslexia and the double deficit hypothesis. Annals of Dyslexia, 47, 69—88.
2.
Barker, T.A., Torgesen, J.K., & Wagner, R.K. (1992). The role of orthographic processing skills on five different reading tasks. Reading Research Quarterly, 27, 334— 345.
3.
Bates, E., Devescovi, A., & Wulfeck, B. (2001). Psycholinguistics: A cross-language perspective. Annual Review ofPsychology, 52, 369—396.
4.
Bowers, P.G., & Wolf, M. (1993). Theoretical links among naming speed, precise timing mechanisms, and orthographic skill in dyslexia. Reading and Writing, 5, 69—85.
5.
Bowers, P.G., Sunseth, K., & Golden, J. (1999). The route between rapid naming and reading progress . Scientific Studies of Reading, 3, 31—53.
6.
Brannan, J.R., & Williams, M.C. (1988). Development versus sensory deficit on perceptual processing in the reading disabled. Perception & Psychophysics, 44, 437— 444.
7.
Carver, R.P. (1997). Reading for one second, one minute, or one year from the perspective of Rauding theory. Scientific Studies of Reading, 1, 3—42.
8.
Compton, D.L. (2003). The influence of item composition on RAN Letter performance in first-grade children. The Journal of Special Education, 37, 81—94.
9.
Compton, D.L., & Carlisle, J.F. (1994). Speed of word recognition as a distinguishing characteristic of reading disabilities. Educational Psychology Review, 6, 115— 139.
10.
Cuetos, F., Rodríguez, B., & Ruano, E. (1996). Batería de evaluación de los procesos lectores de los niños de educación primaria (PROLEC). Madrid: TEA.
11.
de Jong, P.F., & van der Leij, A. (2003). Developmental changes in the manifestation of a phonological deficit in dyslexic children learning to read a regular orthography. Journal of Educational Psychology , 95, 22—40.
12.
Denckla, M.B., & Rudel, R.G. (1974). Rapid automatized naming of pictured objects, colors, letters and numbers by normal children. Cortex, 10, 186—202.
13.
Denckla, M.B., & Rudel, R. (1976). Rapid automatized naming (RAN): Dyslexia differentiated from other learning disabilities. Neuropsychologia, 14, 471—479.
14.
Escribano, C.L. (2005). Rapid serial visual presentation test. Madrid: UCM.
15.
Fawcett, A.J., & Nicolson, R.I. (2001). Dyslexia: the role of the cerebellum. In A. J. Fawcett (Ed.), Dyslexia: Theory and good practice (pp. 89—106). London : Whurr.
16.
Frith, U., Wimmer, H., & Landerl, K. (1998). Differences in phonological recoding in German- and English-speaking children. Scientific Studies of Reading , 2, 31—54.
17.
Guzmán, R., Jiménez, J.E., Ortiz, M.R., Hernández-Valle, I., Estévez, A., Rodrigo, M., et al. (2004). Evaluación de la velocidad lectora de nombrar en las dificultades de aprendizaje en la lectura. Psycothema , 16, 442—447.
18.
Holopainen, L., Ahonen, T., & Lyytinen, H. (2001). Predicting delay in reading achievement in a highly transparent language. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 34, 401—413.
19.
Jiménez, J.E. (1997). A reading-level match study of phonemic processes underlying reading disabilities in a transparent orthography. Reading and Writing, 9, 23—40.
20.
Jiménez, J.E., & Hernández-Valle, I. (2000). Word identification and reading disorders in the Spanish language. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 33, 44—60.
21.
Jiménez, J.E., & Ramírez, G. (2002). Identifying subtypes of reading disability in the Spanish language. SpanishJournal of Psychology, 5, 3—19.
22.
Kail, R., Hall, L.J., & Caskey, B. (1999). Processing speed, exposure to print, and naming speed. Applied Psycholinguistics, 20, 303—314.
23.
Katzir, T., Shaul, S., Breznitz, Z., & Wolf, M. (2004). The universal and the unique in dyslexia: A cross-linguistic investigation of reading fluency in Hebrew- and English-speaking children with reading disorders. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 17, 739—768.
24.
Katzir, T., Kim, Y.S., Wolf, M., Kennedy, B., Lovett, M., & Morris, R. (2006). The relationship of spelling recognition, RAN, and phonological awareness to reading skills in older poor readers and younger reading-matched controls. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 19, 845—872.
25.
Katzir, T., Wolf, M., O'Brien, B., Kennedy, B., Morris, R., & Lovett, M. (in press). The varieties of pathways to dysfluent reading: Comparing subtypes of children with dyslexia at letter, word and connected-text reading . Journal of Learning Disabilities.
26.
Kirby, J., Parrila, R., & Pfeiffer, S. (2003). Naming speed and phonological awareness as predictors of reading development. Journal of Educational Psychology , 95, 453—464.
27.
Korhonen, T. (1995). The persistence of rapid naming problems in children with reading disabilities: A nine-year follow-up. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 28, 232— 239.
28.
Landerl, K. (2001). Word recognition deficits in German: More evidence from a representative sample. Dyslexia, 7, 183— 196.
29.
Levy, B.A., Bourassa, D.C., & Horn, C. (1999). Fast and slow namers: Benefits of segmentation and whole word training. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology , 73, 115—138.
30.
Levy, B.A., & Lysynchuk, L. (1997). Beginning word recognition: Benefits of training by segmentation and whole word methods. Scientific Studies of Reading, 1, 359—387.
31.
López-Higes, R., Mayoral, J.A., & Villoria, C. (2002). Batería de evaluación de la lectura (BEL). Madrid: Psymtec.
32.
Lovett, M.W. (1987). A developmental approach to reading disability: Accuracy and speed criteria of normal and deficient reading skill. Child Development, 58, 234—260.
33.
Lovett, M.W., Steinbach, K.A., & Frijters, J.C. (2000). Remediating the core deficits of developmental reading disability: A double-deficit perspective. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 33, 334—358.
34.
Manis, F.R., Doi, L.M., & Bhadha, B. (2000). Naming speed, phonological awareness, and orthographic knowledge in second graders. Journal of Learning Disabilities , 33, 325—333.
35.
Manis, F.R., Seidenberg, M.S., & Doi, L.M. (1999). See Dick RAN: Rapid naming and the longitudinal prediction of reading subskills in first and second graders. Scientific Studies of Reading, 3, 129—157.
36.
Meyer, M.S., Wood, F.B., Hart, L.A., & Felton, R.H. (1998). Selective predictive value of rapid automatized naming in poor readers. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 31, 106—117.
37.
Milles, E. (2000). Dyslexia may show a different face in different languages. Dyslexia, 6, 193—201.
38.
Morris, R., Stuebing, K., Fletcher, J., Shaywitz, S., Lyon, R., Shankweiler, D., et al. (1998). Subtypes of reading disability: A phonological core. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90, 347—373.
39.
Novoa, L. & Wolf, M. (1984, October). Word retrieval and reading in bilingual children. Paper presented at the Boston University Conference on Language Development, Boston, MA.
40.
Patel, T.K., Snowling, M.J., & de Jong, P.F. (2004). A cross-linguistic comparison of children learning to read in English and Dutch. Journal of Educational Psychology , 96, 785—797.
41.
Perfetti, C.A., Goldman, S., & Hogaboam, T. (1979). Reading skill and the identification of words in discourse context. Memory & Cognition, 7, 273—282.
42.
Rack, J.P., Snowling, M.J., & Olson, R. (1992). The nonword reading deficit in developmental dyslexia: A review. Reading Research Quarterly, 27, 29—53.
43.
Ramos, J.L., & Cuetos, F. (1999). Evaluación de los procesos lectores en alumnos de tercer ciclo de educación primaria y secundaría obligatoria (PROLEC-SE) . Madrid: TEA.
44.
Rodrigo, M., & Jiménez, J.E. (1999). An analysis of the word naming errors of normal readers and reading disabled children in Spanish. Journal of Research in Reading, 22, 187—197.
45.
Schatschneider, C., Carlson, C.D., Francis, D.J., Foorman, B.R., & Fletcher, J.M. (2002). Relationship of rapid automatized naming and phonological awareness in early reading development: Implications for the double-deficit hypothesis. Journal of Learning Disabilities , 35, 245—256.
46.
Seymour, P.H. (2005). Quantifying the effects of orthographic and phonological complexity on foundation literacy acquisition: The English—Finnish contrast . Paper presented at the Twelfth Annual Meeting of TripleSR, Toronto, ON, Canada.
47.
Spencer, L.H., & Hanley, R.J. (2003). Effects of orthographic transparency on reading and phoneme awareness in children learning to read in Wales. The British Journal of Psychology, 94, 1—28.
48.
Stanovich, K.E. (1988). The dyslexic and the garden-variety poor reader: The phonological-core variable-difference model. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 21, 590—604.
49.
Stanovich, K.E. (1992). Speculations on the causes and consequences of individual differences in early reading acquisition. In P. B. Gough, L. C. Ehri, & R. Treiman (Eds.), Reading acquisition (pp. 307—342). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
50.
Sunseth, K., & Bowers, P.G. (2002). Rapid naming and phonemic awareness: Contributions to reading, spelling, and orthographic knowledge. Scientific Studies of Reading, 6, 401—429.
51.
Torgesen, J.K., Wagner, R.K., Rashotte, C.A., Burgess, S., & Hecht, S. (1997). Contributions of phonological awareness and rapid automatic naming ability to the growth of word-reading skills in second-to fifth-grade children. Scientific Studies of Reading, 1, 161—185.
52.
Tressoldi, P.E., Stella, G., & Faggella, M. (2001). The development of reading speed in Italians with dyslexia: A longitudinal study. Journal of Learning Disabilities , 34, 414—417.
53.
van den Bos, K.P. (1998). IQ, phonological awareness, and continuous naming speed related to Dutch children's poor decoding performance on two word identification tests. Dyslexia, 4, 73—89.
54.
van den Bos, K.P., Zijlstra, B.J.H., & Lutje Spelberg, H.C. (2002). Life-span data on continuous-naming speeds of numbers, letters, colors and pictured objects, and word reading speed. Scientific Studies of Reading, 6, 25—49.
55.
Wagner, R., Torgesen, J., & Rashotte, C. (1994). Development of reading-related phonological processing abilities: New evidence of bidirectional causality from a latent variable longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 30, 73—87.
56.
Wagner, R.K., Torgesen, J.K., Rashotte, C.A., Hecht, S.A., Barker, T.A., Burgess, S.A., et al. (1997). Changing relations between phonological processing abilities and word-level reading as children develop from beginning to skilled readers: A five-year longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 33, 468—479.
57.
Wechsler, D. (1974). Wechsler intelligence scale for children (Rev. ed). San Antonio: Psychological Corp.
58.
Wimmer, H., & Goswami, U. (1994). The influence of orthographic consistency on reading development: Word recognition in English and German children. Cognition, 51, 91—103.
59.
Wimmer, H., Mayringer, H., & Landerl, K. (1998). Poor reading: A deficit in skill automatization or a phonological deficit?Scientific Studies of Reading, 2, 321—340.
60.
Wimmer, H., Mayringer, H., & Landerl, K. (2000). The double-deficit hypothesis and the difficulties in learning to read a regular orthography. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92, 668—680.
61.
Wolf, M., Bally, H., & Morris, R. (1986). Automaticity, retrieval processes, and reading: A longitudinal study in average and impaired readers. Child Development, 57, 988—1000.
62.
Wolf, M., & Bowers, P.G. (1999). The double-deficit hypothesis for developmental dyslexia. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 415—438.
63.
Wolf, M., Bowers, P.G., & Biddle, K. (2000). Naming-speed processes, timing, and reading: A conceptual review. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 33, 387—407.
64.
Yap, R., & van der Leij, A. (1993). Word processing in dyslexics: An automatic decoding deficit?Reading and Writing, 5, 261—279.
65.
Young, A., & Bowers, P.G. (1995). Individual differences and text difficulty determinants of reading fluency and expressiveness. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 60, 438—454.
