This study examined the executive functioning of 55 elementary school children with and without problems in written expression. Two groups reflecting children with and without significant writing problems were defined by an average primary trait rating across two separate narratives. The groups did not differ in terms of chronological age, ethnicity, gender, socioeconomic status, special education status, or presence of attention problems or receptive vocabulary capabilities; however, they did differ in reading decoding ability, and this variable was controlled for in all analyses. Dependent measures included tasks tapping an array of executive functions grouped conceptually in accordance with a model of executive functioning reflecting the following domains: initiate, sustain, set shifting, and inhibition/stopping. Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) procedures revealed statistically significant group differences on the initiation and set shift domains, with the sustaining domain approaching significance. Children with writing problems performed more poorly in each of these domains, although the effect sizes were small. A multiple regression that employed these four factors and the reading decoding variable to predict the primary trait score from the written narratives revealed a statistically significant regression function; however, reading decoding contributed most of the unique variance to the writing outcome. These findings point out the importance of executive functions in the written language process for elementary school students, but highlight the need to examine other variables when studying elementary school-age children with written expression problems.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Abbott, R.D., & Berninger, V.W. (1993). Structural equation modeling of relationships among developmental skills and writing skills in primary- and intermediate-grade writers. Journal of Educational Psychology , 85, 478-508.
2.
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author .
3.
Baddeley, A.D. (1986). Working memory. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
4.
Benton, A.L., Hamsher, K. de S., Varney, N.R., & Spreen, O. (1983). Contributions to neuropsychological assessment . New York: Oxford University Press .
5.
Bereiter, C. (1980). Development in writing. In L. W. Gregg & E. R. Steinberg (Eds.), Cognitive processes in writing (pp. 73-93). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
6.
Berninger, V.W. (1999). Coordinating transcription and text generation in working memory during composing: Automatic and constructive processes. Learning Disability Quarterly, 22, 99-112.
7.
Berninger, V.W., & Hart, T. (1992a). A developmental neuropsychological perspective for reading and writing acquisition. Educational Psychologist , 27, 415-434.
8.
Berninger, V.W., & Hart, T. (1992b). From research to clinical assessment of reading and writing disorders: The unit of analysis problem. In R. M. Joshi & C. K. Leong (Eds.), Reading disabilities: Diagnosis and component processes (pp. 66-89). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer.
9.
Berninger, V.W., & Rutberg, J. (1992). Relationship of finger function to beginning writing: Application to diagnosis of writing disabilities. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 34, 155-172.
10.
Berninger, V.W., & Swanson, H.L. (1994). Modifying Hayes and Flower's model of skilled writing to explain beginning and developing writing. In E. Butterfield (Ed.), Children's writing: Toward a process theory of development of skilled writing (pp. 57-81). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
11.
Berninger, V., Yates, C., Cartwright, A., Rutberg, J., Remy, E., & Abbott, R. (1992). Lower-level developmental skills in beginning writing. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal , 4, 257-280.
12.
Bridge, C.A., & Hiebert, E.H. (1985). A comparison of classroom writing practices, teachers' perceptions of their writing instruction, and textbook recommendations on writing practices. Elementary School Journal, 86, 155-172.
13.
Burtis, P., Bereiter, C., Scardamalia, M., & Tetroe, J. (1983). The development of planning in writing. In G. Wells & B. Kroll (Eds.), Explorations in the development of writing (pp. 153-174). Chichester, UK: John Wiley.
14.
Daigneault, S., Braun, C. M .J., & Whitaker, H.A. (1992). An empirical test of two opposing theoretical models of prefrontal function. Brain and Cognition, 19, 48-71.
15.
Denckla, M.B. (1994). Measurement of executive function. In G. R. Lyon (Ed.), Frames of reference for the assessment of learning disabilities. New views on measurement issues (pp. 117-142). Baltimore: Brookes.
16.
Denckla, M.B. (1996). A theory and model of executive function. In G. R. Lyon & N. A. Krasnegor (Eds.), Attention, memory, and executive function (pp. 263-278). Baltimore: Brookes .
17.
Dunn, L.M., & Dunn, L.M. (1981). The Peabody picture vocabulary test-Revised. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service .
18.
Educational Testing Service. (1992). Exploring new methods for collecting students' school-based writing: National Assessment of Educational Progress 1990 portfolio study. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
19.
Ellis, A.W. (1983). Reading, writing, and dyslexia: A cognitive analysis . Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
20.
Englert, C.S. (1990). Unraveling the mysteries of writing through strategy instruction. In T. E. Scruggs & B. Y. L. Wong (Eds.), Intervention research in learning disabilities (pp. 180-223). New York: Springer Verlag.
21.
Fayol, M. (1999). From on-line management problems to strategies in written composition. In M. Torrance & G. Jeffery (Eds.), The cognitive demands of writing (pp. 13-23). Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.
22.
Fitzgerald, J. (1987). Research on revision in writing. Review of Educational Research, 57, 481-506.
23.
Fitzgerald, J., & Shanahan, T. (2000). Reading and writing relations and their development . Educational Psychologist, 35, 39-50.
24.
Fletcher, J.M., & Morris, R. (1986). Classification of disabled learners: Beyond exclusionary definitions. In S. Ceci (Ed.), Handbook of cognitive, social, and neuropsychological aspects of learning disabilities (Vol. I, pp. 55-80). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
25.
Flower, L., & Hayes, J. (1981). A cognitive process theory of writing. College Composition and Communication, 32, 365-387.
26.
Gagne, R.M. (1985). The conditions of learning. A theory of instruction (4th ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
27.
Graham, S. (1997). Executive control in the revising of students with learning and writing difficulties. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89, 223-234.
28.
Graham, S., Harris, K.R., MacArthur, C., & Schwartz, S. (1991). Writing and writing instruction for students with learning disabilities: Review of a research program. Learning Disability Quarterly, 14, 89-114.
29.
Gregg, N. (1992). Expressive writing. In S. R. Hooper, G. W. Hynd, & R. E. Mattison (Eds.), Developmental disorders: Diagnostic criteria and clinical assessment (pp. 127-172). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
30.
Halliday, M.A.K., & Hasan, R. (1976). Cohesion in English. London : Longman.
31.
Hayes, J.R. (1996). A new framework for understanding cognition and affect in writing. In C. M. Levy & S. Ransdell (Eds.), The science of writing: Theories, methods, individual differences, and applications (pp. 1-27). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
32.
Hayes, J.R., & Flower, L.S. (1980). Identifying the organization of writing processes . In L. W. Gregg & E. R. Steinbert (Eds.), Cognitive processes in writing (pp. 3-30). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
33.
Hayes, J.R., & Flower, L.S. (1986). Writing research and the writer. American Psychologist, 41, 1106-1113.
Hooper, S.R., Montgomery, J.W., Swartz, C., Reed, M.S., Sandler, A.D., Levine, M.D., Watson, T.E., & Wasileski, T. (1994). Measurement of written language expression. In G. R. Lyon (Ed.), Frames of reference for the assessment of learning disabilities. New views on measurement issues (pp. 375-417). Baltimore: Brookes .
36.
Hooper, S.R., Swartz, C., Montgomery, J., Reed, M.S., Brown, T., Wasileski, T., & Levine, M.D. (1993). Prevalence of writing problems across three middle school samples. School Psychology Review, 22, 608-620.
37.
Kagan, J., Rosman, B.C., Day, D., Albert, J., & Phillips, W. (1964). Information processing in the child: Significance of analytic and reflective attitudes. Psychological Monographs, General and Applied, 78, 1-27.
38.
Kellogg, R.T. (1996). A model of working memory in writing. In C. M. Levy & S. Ransdell (Eds.), The science of writing: Theories, methods, individual differences, and applications (pp. 57-71). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
39.
Kellogg, R.T. (1999). Components of working memory in text production . In M. Torrance & G. Jeffery (Eds.), The cognitive demands of writing (pp. 143-161). Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.
40.
Keselman, H.J., Huberty, C.J., Lix, L.M., Olejnik, S., Cribbie, R.A., Donahue, B., Kowalchuk, R.K., Lowman, L.L., Petoskey, M.D., & Keselman, J.C. (1998). Statistical practices of educational researchers: An analysis of their ANOVA, MANOVA, and ANCOVA analyses . Review of Educational Research, 68, 350-386.
41.
Lea, J., & Levy, C.M. (1999). Working memory as a resource in the writing process . In M. Torrance & G. Jeffery (Eds.), The cognitive demands of writing (pp. 63-82). Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.
42.
Lerner, J.W. (1976). Children with learning disabilities: Theories, diagnosis, teaching strategies. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
43.
Levine, M.D., Hooper, S.R., Montgomery, J.W., Reed, M., Sandler, A., Swartz, C., & Watson, T. (1993). Learning disabilities. An interactive developmental paradigm. In G. R. Lyon, D. B. Gray, J. F. Kavanagh , & N. A. Krasnegor (Eds.), Better understanding learning disabilities. New views from research and their implications for educational and public policies (pp. 229-250). Baltimore: Brookes.
44.
Levy, C.M., & Marek, P. (1999). Testing components of Kellogg's multicomponent model of working memory in writing: The role of the phonological loop. In M. Torrance & G. Jeffery (Eds.), The cognitive demands of writing (pp. 25-41). Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.
45.
Levy, C.M., & Ransdell, S.E. (1995). Is writing as difficult as it seems?Memory and Cognition, 23, 767-779.
46.
Luria, A.R. (1970). The functional organization of the brain. Scientific American, 222, 66-78.
47.
Lyon, G.R. (1987). Learning disabilities research: False starts and broken promises. In S. Vaughn & C. Bos (Eds.), Research in learning disabilities: Issues and future directions (pp. 69-85). San Diego: College-Hill Press.
48.
Lyon, G. R., & Krasnegor, N. A. (Eds.). (1996). Attention, memory, and executive function. Baltimore: Brookes.
49.
McCutchen, D. (1995). Cognitive processes in children's writing: Developmental and individual differences. Issues in Education: Contributions fromEducational Psychology, 1, 123-160.
50.
McCutchen, D. (1996). A capacity theory of writing: Working memory in composition. Educational Psychology Review, 8, 299-325.
51.
McCutchen, D., & Perfetti, C. (1982). Coherence and connectedness in the development of discourse production. Text, 2, 113-119.
52.
Myklebust, H. (1965). Development and disorders of written language (Vol. 1). New York: Grune & Stratton.
53.
National Center for Educational Statistics. ( 1999). NAEP 1998 writing report card for the nation and the states (Report NCES 1999-462). Washington, DC: Office of Educational Research and Improvement.
54.
Ogle, J.W. (1867). Aphasia and agraphia. Report of the Medical Research Counsel of Saint George's Hospital, 2, 83-122.
55.
Pennington, B. (1997). Dimensions of executive functions in normal and abnormal development. In N. A. Krasnegor, G. R. Lyon, & P. S. Goldman-Rakic (Eds.), Development of prefrontal cortex (pp. 265-281). Baltimore: Brookes.
56.
Roeltgen, D. (1985). Agraphia. In K. M. Heilman & E. Valenstein (Eds.), Clinical neuropsychology (pp. 75-96). New York: Oxford University Press.
57.
Roit, M.L., & McKenzie, R.G. (1985). Disorders of written communication: An instructional priority for LD students. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 19, 258-260.
58.
Scardamalia, M., & Bereiter, C. (1986). Research on written composition. In M. C. Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook on research on teaching (3rd ed., pp. 778-803). New York: Macmillan.
59.
Schenck, S.J. (1981). The diagnostic/ instructional link in individualized education programs. The Journal of Special Education, 14, 337-345.
60.
Semel, E., Wiig, E.H., & Secord, W. (1987). Clinical evaluation of language fundamentals-Revised . San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corp.
61.
Singer, B.D., & Bashir, A.S. (1999). What are executive functions and self-regulation and what do they have to do with language-learning disorders?Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 30, 265-273.
62.
Stark, R.W., Tallal, P., Kallman, C., & Mellits, D. (1983). Cognitive abilities of language delayed children . The Journal of Psychology, 114, 9-19.
63.
Sommers, N. (1980). Revision strategies of student writers and experienced adult writers. College Composition and Communication, 31, 378-388.
64.
Swanson, H.L., & Berninger, V. (1994). Individual differences in children's working memory and writing skill. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology , 63, 358-385.
65.
Swartz, C.W., Hooper, S.R., Montgomery, J.W., Wakely, M.B., de Kruif, R.E.L., Reed, M., Brown, T.T., Levine, M.D., & White, K.P. (1999). Using generalizability theory to estimate the reliability of writing scores derived from holistic and analytical scoring methods. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 59, 492-506.
66.
Swartz, C.W., Wakely, M.B., Hooper, S.R., de Kruif, R.E.L., & Montgomery, J.W. (2001). A model of neurocognitive and performance-based subtypes of written expression. Manuscript submitted for publication.
67.
Torgesen, J.K. (1994). Issues in the assessment of executive function . In G. R. Lyon (Ed.), Frames of reference for the assessment of learning disabilities: New views on measurement issues (pp. 143-162). Baltimore: Brookes.
U.S. Office of Education. (1976). Public Law 94-142 regulations: Proposed rulemaking. Federal Register, 41, 52404-52407.
70.
Welsh, M.C., Pennington, B.F., & Groisser, D.B. (1991). A normative developmental study of executive function: A window on the prefrontal function in children . Developmental Neuropsychology, 7, 131-149.
71.
Woodcock, R.W. (1987). Woodcock reading mastery tests-Revised. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service .
