Abstract
Establishing ‘decent work and economic growth’ as one of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) has elevated the discourse of decent work beyond national level policy debate. For emerging economies in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), the literature, though limited, has sought to explore prospects for workers to find productive and decent work in conditions of human dignity, equity, freedom and security. In this paper, we provide a review of decent work research in SSA by mapping the core themes and discussing the challenges and opportunities for decent work in the region. Our review reveals the informal economy, economic policy and development programming, the rising gig economy and the nature of organisational climate as core themes surrounding ‘decent work deficit’ in SSA. We use the International Labour Organisation's decent work framework: social protection, social dialogue, workers’ rights and employment creation to highlight implications for (a) labour regulation (b) workers’ voice and representation and (c) employer's managerial prerogative. Our paper sets out future IR research to support the analysis and development of decent work in SSA.
Keywords
Introduction
Over the last decade, the debate on decent work or its absence has attracted research and policy interest across Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). In this paper, decent work is defined as productive employment that offers, among other things, fair income, safe working conditions, job security, developmental opportunities and social protection for all workers (Amankwaa et al., 2025). We use the International Labour Organisation's (ILO) decent work framework (i.e., social protection, social dialogue, workers’ rights and employment creation) to guide our discussions and analysis of the debate about decent work in SSA. This is because the ILO decent work framework offers a model for development which is central to addressing the rising precarious working conditions, underemployment and unemployment in the region (ILO, 2005; Wignall et al., 2023). Explicit to emerging economies in SSA, the research, though limited, has sought to explore prospects for workers to find productive and decent work in conditions of human dignity (Azunu and Mensah, 2019; Dobbins et al., 2024; ILO, 2005). In terms of prioritizing decent work, SSA continues to exhibit limited progress of a decent work environment and sustained economic growth (Skvarciany and Vidžiūnė, 2022). Though the evidence around decent working conditions suggests disparities across SSA countries (ILO, 2011), majority of the workforce experience precarious working conditions – restricted social mobility, limited or no job security, low pay, no social protection and worker exploitation (Barford et al., 2021). Scholars and development practitioners continue to highlight intersection between decent work and sustainable development (Yeh and Wang, 2024) on the assumption that social protection, employment creation, social dialogue and rights at work are directly tied to people's living standards, productive employment, inclusive economic growth and development. According to the ILO (2011), decent work remains integral to and a key area of action and engagement for the attainment of sustainable development in the SSA region. Yet, our initial literature search confirmed limited research on decent work in SSA until 2012 (see Figure 1). Since then, however, there has been a sustained increase of published research on decent work within the region (see Figure 2). Nevertheless, as the review demonstrates, the coverage is very uneven across the region and confined to a few countries, notably South Africa (see Figure 2). Our review thus addresses an urgent need for a critical analysis of the current state of the literature and leads discussions to embed key elements of decent work as part of recent development programming aspirations in the SSA.
Decent work research trend in SSA.
Research on decent work in SSA.
In the context of SSA, the COVID-19 pandemic shattered development progress and decent working conditions across many countries. Post the COVID-19 pandemic, SSA experienced economic decline resulting in rising poverty levels, unemployment, food insecurity and slow economic recovery (Danquah et al., 2024, Oleribe et al., 2024). In the past, development aspirations across the region were impaired by frequent political, social, climatic (droughts, floods and fires), and economic crises (Appiah-Otoo et al., 2025; Bekele et al., 2024). In recognition of the view that employment creation, social dialogue, workers’ rights and social protection are necessary mechanisms for supporting SSA's development, advancing decent work continues to draw public policy and research considerations (Figure 2), especially around indecent working conditions, but largely within the South African context.
Arguing through the Varieties of Capitalism (VoC) lens, Dobbins et al. (2024) asserted that the progressing of decent work has further been complicated by variations between coordinated market economies (CMEs) and liberal market economies (LMEs). The VoC across countries has resulted in different approaches to decent work (Dobbins et al., 2024). When the historical, institutional and economic circumstances of SSA are scrutinized more closely, the region exhibits oscillations between liberal economic marketization and forms of collaborative, state-directed economies in which free market forces play a restricted role (Dobbins et al., 2024). In a blended context of LMEs and CMEs, there is some shared social accord between governments, trade unions and employers, but with limited policy and regulatory coordination and intervention resulting in major concerns around decent working conditions. The vulnerability of the labour force in SSA, marked by high unemployment, underemployment and worker exploitation, underscores the nature and key attributes of decent working conditions in the region (Ayentimi et al., 2025). For many less developed and emerging economies in SSA, decent work implies a central role in the pursuit of better employment outcomes, inclusive growth and development, and is largely deep-rooted in the United Nation's (UN) 17 1 SDGs. Even though the UN SDG-8 implies a dominant role of decent work, it is broadly defined and conceptualised (Dobbins et al., 2024; Vignoli et al., 2020). Thus, there is a need to undertake a review of the literature to understand the analysis and suggestions for policy development supporting decent work in SSA.
Without close attention to what decent work means in the context of SSA, the aspirations of development programming to achieve the ILO decent work agenda to address the rising precarious working conditions, underemployment and unemployment in the region is at risk. Decent work deficit (i.e., the absence or inadequacy of decent working conditions) in SSA is a notable concern that is affecting millions of young people given the high rate of job inequality and vulnerable employment (Webster et al., 2016). Thus, there is a justification to undertake a review of the literature to understand the analysis and suggestions for policy development supporting decent work in SSA. In addition, the review is important to highlight SSA's decent work deficit and to understand the ramifications for workers.
The central aims of the article are as follows. The first part provides theoretical context into the concept and key elements of decent work. The second part provides a review of research on decent work in SSA by mapping core themes and discussing the challenges and opportunities for decent work. The third part discusses ‘decent work deficit’ within the ILO decent work framework to highlight implications for (a) labour regulation, (b) workers’ voice and representation, and (c) employer's managerial prerogative. Through this approach, we propose that future IR research engage with the issues highlighted in the literature, acknowledging that employment creation, social dialogue, workers’ rights and social protection are integral to sustainable development and interwoven with other SDGs.
Decent work: A review and critique
Decent work as a concept was first conceptualised by the ILO in the late 90s to support work in conditions of human dignity, equity, freedom and security (ILO, 2011). The decent work concept signifies the extensive and contrasted dimensions linked to work and covers work in all contexts from the formal employment sector to home workers, self-employed and unregulated wage workers mostly located within the informal economy (Piasna et al., 2020). The ILO decent work conceptualisation is envisioned within four critical work domains: employment creation, social dialogue, workers’ rights and social protection. The employment aspect of decent work includes all forms of work in the formal and informal economies that provide adequate opportunities, ensures safe and healthy working conditions, and offers fair labour compensation (Pereira et al., 2019). The social dialogue dimension emphasizes workers’ right to negotiate with employers and authorities on work-related issues, advancing their views and interests. Workers’ rights focus on fundamental human rights such as freedom of association, non-discrimination and an absence of child and forced labour. Finally, income and social security are the two essential elements of social protection reinforced by the ILO (Macnaughton and Frey, 2011). The ILO conceptualisation of decent work focuses on economic occupation (job creation and poverty reduction) and indicators which partially capture worker well-being (Blustein et al., 2020). While it can be argued that ILO's Convention 155 addresses occupational health and safety, Deranty and MacMillan (2012: 386) contend that “what is missing in this [decent work] approach is the view of work, not just as an economic occupation and a social relation, but also as an activity, one that impacts significantly on individual wellbeing in as much as it mobilizes the body, mind and soul of workers”. That is, decent work extends beyond the material and human rights conditions around work, and includes issues such as control, relationships at work and psychosocial wellbeing (Vassiley et al., 2025).
The psychology of working theory (PWT) (Duffy et al., 2016) provides a conceptual framework to understand this tension. This is because PWT is based on the ILO's fourth attribute of decent work – social protection – which seeks to “ensure that all women and men enjoy safe working conditions, allow adequate free time and rest, consider family and social values, make provisions for adequate compensation in case of lost or reduced income, and permit access to adequate healthcare” (Duffy et al., 2016: 130). At its core, PWT aims to capture the experience of working that extends beyond the material aspect to include psychological, health and social conditions. The PWT argues that access to decent work leads individuals to fulfil three critical basic needs of life: survival needs, self-determination needs and social connection needs (see Alfa et al., 2023; Duffy et al., 2016, 2017; Dodda et al., 2019). PWT's conceptualisation of decent work offers additional dimensions to the understanding and analysis of decent work (e.g., Duffy et al., 2017; Dodda et al., 2019; Vignoli et al., 2020).
To complement these frameworks of understanding decent work, the context of work has been important in analysing decent work from an IR perspective. Access to decent working conditions is dependent on contextual considerations such as labour regulations, employer and employee representation, forms of voice, labour market conditions and training access and systems of education and accreditation (Barry and Wilkinson, 2016; Dobbins et al., 2024). For Deranty and MacMillan (2012: 395), three levels of conditions need to be distinguished that together make work decent: (a) the broader social-cultural level, (b) the level of the work collective and (c) the individual level.
Beyond breaking down decent work into its many constituent elements, there have been attempts to operationalise and measure decent work to track national and cross-national trends. Following Duffy et al.'s (2017) development and initial validation of the decent work scale (DWS) in the US context, researchers have measured and examined trends in decent work from different countries including France (Vignoli et al., 2020), the UK (Dodda et al., 2019), Brazil (Ribeiro et al., 2019), South Korea (Nam and Kim, 2019), Switzerland (Masdonati et al., 2019), Italy (Di Fabio and Kenny, 2019), Turkey (Buyukgoze-Kavas and Autin, 2019) and Portugal (Ferreira et al., 2019). Whether decent work can be accurately captured and aggregated is debatable; however, the development of measurement scales and metrics provides a foundation for assessing how policy developments impact on decent work.
To date, the ILO decent work framework remains a dominant lens in the literature. This position perhaps accentuates the critical importance of the ILO decent work framing, which takes both a micro view towards the development of individuals, and a macro view towards the development of the economy . Relatedly, our paper draws on the ILO decent work framework to provide insights into decent work research in SSA and discusses implications for labour regulation, worker voice and representation, and employer's managerial prerogative.
Methodology
In line with the study's aim of reviewing research on decent work in SSA to delineate core themes and critically examine the associated challenges and opportunities, we employed a systematic qualitative review methodology to provide an in-depth analysis of the existing literature on decent work in the region. We followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA; Moher et al., 2009) to ensure that our processes are transparent, and that our methods can be reproduced to generate similar research findings (Kraus et al., 2020; Tranfield et al., 2003). In the following sections, we discuss the processes and methods employed in our review.
Literature search
We commenced the review with a search of the literature on decent work in SSA. To fully capture decent work research in theregion, we initially clarified our search terms to decent work research in the African region only. In the second step, we engaged in a database-driven search in two global electronic databases: Scopus and Web of Science (WoS). Our search focused on the terms decent work and Africa in title, abstract or keywords [example query for a search in Title, Abstract OR keywords is (“decent work” AND “Africa”)]. To ensure academic rigour in our review, the search results were then limited to peer-reviewed articles written in English, resulting in 236 articles (Scopus = 128, WoS =108). The limited number of papers generated from our initial search indicated that there is limited literature on the topic in the SSA context. Next, to confirm these results, we conducted a Google Scholar search on the topic and a manual citation search to confirm that we did not miss any articles in our original searches.
Screening for relevance
We used Covidence, an online-based systematic review system to import, screen and review the 236 papers from Scopus and WoS. Covidence ensures that duplicates are automatically removed, supports blind, independent screening of studies, ensures inter-rater reliability and credibility of the review process. A total of 78 duplicates were automatically removed by Covidence, and two papers were also identified as duplicates and manually removed. The researchers screened the titles and abstracts of the 156 remaining articles in Covidence, independently and anonymously. The screening was based on two main criteria: (1) The title or abstract of the article must indicate that it focuses on decent work and (2) in a sub-Saharan African country. Cases where a study was included by one researcher but excluded by the other were recorded as ‘conflicts’ in Covidence. The two researchers then met to discuss the ‘conflicts’ and decided whether the article should proceed to the next stage of the screening process. This exercise ensured that potential for unintended biases in either researcher's inclusion/exclusion decision-making was addressed (Nielsen et al., 2018). There was a high inter-rater reliability between the researchers [Cohen's kappa (k) = 0.767; proportionate agreement = 0.903; random agreement probability = 0.583]. At the end of this phase of the screening process, a total of 46 papers proceeded to the next stage for full-text review.
During the full-text review, we introduced one additional inclusion/exclusion criterion for quality assurance purposes: (1) the article must be ranked in the 2025 Scimago Journal Ranking (SJR) list. This criterion ensured that we included only articles published in ‘quality’ academic journals; consequently, we excluded three articles not ranked (Q1, Q2, Q3 or Q4) in the SJR. Other articles were also removed because they were irrelevant (n = 3), not focused on decent work in SSA (n = 5), or not peer reviewed (n = 2). A total of 33 articles proceeded to the next stage for comprehensive review and critical analysis. Figure 3 presents a summary of the screening processes using a PRISMA flow diagram.
PRISMA flow diagram.
Data extraction and analyses
To proceed with our critical qualitative review, we developed a code sheet in Excel to extract and organise data from the 33 articles in Covidence, which were used for our review and critical analysis of decent work research in SSA. The information extracted included article identifying data (such as author names, title, journal, publication date), sector or industry and SSA country where the study was conducted, research design and techniques used, sample profile, theoretical approaches used, core research issues, findings and critical gaps.
Descriptive summary of the review
Table 1 presents a descriptive overview of the 33 papers included in our review. The studies were published in 29 different journals ranked Q1 (13), Q2 (12) and Q3 (8) in SJR. They employed a range of theories , with most framed in the lens of the PWT (11), followed by the ILO decent work framework (10), organisational climate theory (2), and power resources theory (1). Quantitative methodologies and designs dominate the field of decent work in SSA (45.46%), followed by qualitative (24.24%), conceptual (18.18%) and mixed methods (12.12%). These studies were conducted across 10 SSA countries dominated by South Africa (43%), followed by Ghana (8%), Burkina Faso (6%), Togo (6%), Zimbabwe (6%) and Nigeria (5%). Cameroon, Senegal, Siera Leone and Tanzania each account for 3% of the decent work research in SSA. Of note is the spread of the studies across several key industries and sectors of the economy, including digital platforms (11.11%), public sector (8.33%), mining (8.33%), manufacturing (8.33%), education (5.56%), agriculture (5.56%), construction (2.78%), clothing (2.78%), energy (2.78%), tourism (2.78%) and services (2.78%). This result further highlights the critical importance of decent work to individual well-being and national development in SSA.
Summary of studies included in the review.
Note. SJR refers to Scimago Journal Ranking 2025; General indicates papers with no specific industry or sector.
Findings
Core debates and key elements in decent work research in SSA
Research on decent work in SSA has primarily focused on a narrow set of theoretical debates that often revolve around the nature of organizational climate, the informal economy, economic policy, development programming and the rise of the gig economy (see Figure 4). This section outlines a brief overview of the literature debate and highlights key developments in the understanding of the decent work deficit in SSA.
Core theoretical debates of decent work in SSA.
Organisational climate and decent work
Organisational climate is rooted in the psychological and physical environment of the organisation largely driven by employee perceptions and attitudes (Pomirleanu et al., 2022). The literature on organisational climate is manifested as a set of traits linked to various organisational elements including employee commitment, autonomy, relationships (employee bonding) and career success (Chinyamurindi et al., 2023; Koekemoer and Masenge, 2024). Organisational climate-focused studies in SSA highlight work engagement and organisational learning to help drive decent work (Sanhokwe and Takawira, 2023). The literature proposes a direct correlation between organisational climate and decent work, and argues that more emphasis is required in supporting decent working conditions, specifically in the areas of employee mental and physical health, subjective career success and organisational citizenship behaviours (Chigbu et al., 2024; Chinyamurindi et al., 2023; Koekemoer and Masenge, 2024; Ruzungunde et al., 2023). The last strands of the literature highlight both subjective and objective organisational dimensions of decent work (Kekana et al., 2023). Atitsogbe et al. (2021) noted that in specific cultural contexts, sufficient rest time and compensation, complementary values and access to health care were found to be linked to workers’ life satisfaction because they have a positive impact on family members and relatives. The literature found evidence that sufficient compensation, sufficient rest time and health care access, are positively and considerably linked with individual mental health (Amponsah-Tawiah et al., 2023). Remarkably, this is largely confined to the formal sector and a few countries in the region.
The gig economy and decent work
The gig economy is a recent development which is facilitating a new economic system for on-demand work facilitated by digital platforms. The literature converging around the gig economy and decent work within SSA context can be represented into two broad categories. The first strand of the literature focuses on how SSA can leverage gig work to embed decent work standards into informal sector employment (Ayentimi et al., 2023; Heeks et al., 2021). This aspect of the literature suggests that gig work is offering the possibility for many countries in the region to formalise work by incorporating decent work principles as well as generate new forms of worker agency (Ayentimi et al., 2023; Cieslik et al., 2022). Beyond the prospects of embedding decent work standards, Cieslik et al. (2022) found e-hailing platforms offer more benefits than those found in the traditional taxi industry.
The second strand of the literature highlights the constraints of leveraging gig work prospects to promote decent work when it is directly entrenched within the informal economy, where basic labour standards or social protection are absent (Cieslik et al., 2022). It points out difficulties around union organization and the absence of regulatory oversight within platform work in the region. The gig economy is spawning new work forms and increasing the share of precarious, insecure and informal labour, adding to the existing pool of informal and insecure work in the region which predates the arrival of gig work (Ayentimi et al., 2023; Loewenson, 2021).
The literature suggests that the rudimentary labour regulation present in SSA has failed to support decent work in the informal economy, and the regulatory systems that support collective bargaining for all workers in many countries have also failed to materialise (Fergus, 2021). Giddy (2022) identified several challenges to decent working conditions experienced by Uber drivers including low wages, safety concerns, contract management concerns, and long working hours. While acknowledging the presence of autonomy and working hours flexibility within the gig economy, Sibiya and du Toit (2022) found that low wages and no social benefits, the absence of unionization and bargaining power, and the lack of control of work time impacted negatively on domestic workers. Platform work in SSA remains insecure and unstable, and the evidence suggests that for most gig workers decent work conditions are absent. Webster et al. (2016) highlight the failure of traditional unions to organize within platforms, despite the ability to organise gig workers through social media platforms. The authors proposed the reconstruction of new forms of agency and power resources to ensure the achievement of better employment conditions.
The rating of gig work platforms has emerged as a way of tracking the conditions available to workers and pressuring platforms to improve the standards associated with gig work. The rating systems inform gig workers and the consumers of online services about the underlying conditions of work embedded into the platforms. The Fairwork Project evaluates fair work standards in the gig economy (Graham and Howson, 2021). The five principles of fairwork used to evaluate gig work platforms are: fair pay; fair conditions; fair contracts; fair management; and fair representation. These align with decent work conditions and are used to rate platforms. Heeks et al. (2021) applied the framework to rate gig work platforms in support of fair gig work and found that one platform was influenced to improve its working conditions due to the widely publicized league table ranking of platforms in South Africa.
Economic policy, development programming and decent work
The literature also examines the relationship between policy programs and the promotion of living standards, including decent work conditions across the region. These studies examine whether policy programs, including trade and aid, are improving general living and working conditions. Compared to other developing regions, SSA demonstrates limited progress in leveraging economic growth to create an environment for decent work (Skvarciany and Vidžiūnė, 2022). Losch (2022) noted that market-driven policies in SSA have failed to improve working conditions for most of the workforce, particularly those within the dominant agriculture sector. On the one hand, the literature found evidence of the development and impact of institutions on labour productivity. The rule of law, political stability and efficiency and transparency in government machinery were found to increase labour productivity (Kpognon et al., 2022). Langan (2014) argued that delivering humanitarian assistance (Aid) in favour of trade to support decent work as part of the Economic Partnership Agreements between the European Union (EU) and African, Caribbean, and Pacific (ACP) countries will not help to achieve any decent work outcomes. This is because there is a disconnect between EU interventions and the requirements for decent work in these economies. The literature highlights broader practical consequences of EU trade agreements and Aid interventions in developing economies.
Mackett (2022) highlighted gendered outcomes within the labour market in relation to macroeconomic policy shifts. The authors suggest that the quality of work for women improves more in male-dominated occupations during periods of fiscal expansion by government. Similarly, in a region already characterised by gender inequalities, precarity and economic instability, Wignall et al. (2023) propose that technical and vocational education training could be designed with decent work pathways to contribute to not only decent work outcomes, but also act as an enabler for reducing gender inequalities This directly aligns with calls by Mohlakoana et al. (2024) to offer clarity on what constitutes decent work in order to provide decent working conditions to leverage job opportunities within the Renewable Energy industry.
The informal sector and decent work
The literature sets out key debates, discussions and issues surrounding the informal economy and the deficit of decent work in SSA. According to different labour market characteristics and country contexts, the informal economy manifests itself in different ways across a range of industries and sectors (Webster et al., 2015). In SSA, in terms of urban employment, over 60% is located within the informal sector and 80% of non-agricultural employment that were found to encompass low wages, insecurity and poor working conditions (Ayentimi et al., 2023). The literature highlights several barriers within the informal sector which undermine labour union mobilization and organisation to advance decent work conditions (Fajana, 2008). Fabry et al. (2022) found evidence of job quality disparities between small-scale farms and in the agro-industry. Webster et al. (2015) highlight those informal workers in three sectors in South Africa suffered deficits in decent work including the absence of worker voice, low wages and long working hours. This confirms Lawrence et al.'s (2008) assertion that the notion of decent work as a concept is basically unknown in SSA that is not supported by substantive research. In many cases around policy programs, decent work is confined to specific realisable objectives, with Okbandrias and Nordjo (2024) demonstrating that local authorities in Ghana conceptualised decent work to mean an expansion of social security to cover informal entrepreneurs, stimulation of local employment, best business practice adoption and informal entrepreneurs’ involvement in decision-making processes within local assemblies.
Critical gaps in decent work research in SSA
Theoretical gaps
The psychological contract concept has been used to analyse worker agency in an IR/ER context to understand decent work (Cullinane and Dundon, 2006). However, the ILO decent work framework remains an important and dominant theoretical lens for guiding decent work research in SSA. The ILO decent work framework can be considered a standard target for macroeconomic policy in SSA. On the other hand, the PWT captures experiences (e.g., discrimination and marginalization) of individuals to predict workers access to decent working conditions (Duffy et al., 2016), and is particularly important for addressing and understanding decent work deficit present in the SSA region. Indeed, though prior research has linked decent work to positive work and health outcomes for workers, “much of this research has been conducted in the Global North – based on experiences and labor conditions of high-income, industrialized countries” (Amankwaa et al., 2025: 2879). With its central premise of explaining work experiences of all individuals, but particularly people near or in poverty, those who face discrimination and marginalisation in their lives, and challenging work-based transitions for which contextual factors often drives access to decent work, PWT captures how decent work is conceptualized and experienced in the SSA region, where work is often precarious, informal and under-regulated (Amankwaa et al., 2025). PWT also offers a unified theoretical lens and a validated measure (see Duffy et al., 2017) which can assist scholars and practitioners in measuring and comparing decent work experiences among workers in the SSA region. Altogether, the ILO decent work framework and the PWT are two instrumental, complementary theoretical underpinnings that can foster ongoing advancement of decent work research in SSA (see Table 2).
Theoretical framing of the studies included in the review.
Theoretically, this review paper highlights four important attributes of decent work research in SSA around organisational climate, the gig economy, economic policy and development programming, and the informal economy. Drawing from the existing literature, this paper highlights the importance of PWT in understanding decent work within the IR context. In fact, there is no equivalent framework to assess decent work within the IR context, that is, IR focuses on macro-level issues, but the effects (or lack) of decent work emerge at the micro level. Relatedly, the literature shows the relevance of specific cultural context in conceptualising decent work and its links to workers’ life satisfaction. The literature suggests that sufficient rest time and compensation, complementary values and access to health care relate to workers’ life satisfaction because they positively impact on employees’ closed family members and relatives (Atitsogbe et al., 2021). Given the importance of such family ties in the context of SSA, it is important for scholars to consider the value of collective ties in assessing decent work.
Moreover, decent work is largely viewed as an integrative framework encompassing multiple dimensions of work (Pereira et al., 2019). However, many of the studies in our review failed to address decent work as such. Theoretically, exploring decent work as an integrative framework in future research offers an important opportunity to contribute to understanding the multifaceted nature and determinants of decent work. Only a few of the studies in our review examined the impact of decent work on such factors as living standards, productivity, worker commitment and training (e.g., Chinyamurindi et al., 2023; Wignall et al., 2023). The opportunity for future research to identify these multifaceted determinants of decent work will also help in designing policy and practical interventions towards the advancement of decent work.
Methodological gaps
Generally, the extent of empirical research on decent work in SSA is limited and most of the reviewed papers employ quantitative approaches and cross-sectional designs (see Table 3). These studies offer theoretical understanding of the relationship between decent work and different aspects of employee work outcomes in SSA (e.g., Atitsogbe et al., 2021; Koekemoer and Masenge, 2024; Olckers and Koekemoer, 2024; Sanhokwe and Takawira, 2023). However, cross-sectional design limits causal inferences and raises potential for common method bias (Podsakoff et al., 2012). Future decent work study may address this issue by incorporating control variables to address potential spurious relationships (Spector, 2019), introducing methodological separation in questionnaire design, introducing time-lags in surveys (Podsakoff et al., 2012). The limited attention paid to qualitative approaches in the decent work research in SSA also presents another critical methodological gap. The limited qualitative research provides insights into individual experiences of work and key IR issues around decent work, including, among others, poverty reduction, experiences of gig work toward achieving decent work (Azunu and Mensah, 2019; Cieslik et al., 2022). To fully capture a nuanced understanding of the concept of decent work across different cultural, national and organisational settings in SSA, there is a need for more qualitative approaches to studying decent work.
Methods used in the reviewed studies.
Contextual gaps
In the context of SSA, decent work research is limited (see Figure 5). Given that countries that scored low and very low in the Human Development Index (Onyia et al., 2025) are generally considered under-researched, future decent work research should widen the scope of countries, sectors of activities and occupational coverage. Broadening decent work research from different occupations, sectors and countries perspectives, together with comparative research across sectors, and occupations will be a relevant development for future research. Following the validation of the DWS based on data from the USA, several scholars have validated the DWS in other countries (Buyukgoze-Kavas and Autin, 2019; Di Fabio and Kenny, 2019; Dodda et al., 2019; Ferreira et al., 2019; Masdonati et al., 2019; Nam and Kim, 2019; Ribeiro et al., 2019; Vignoli et al., 2020). However, from the list of countries researched, SSA is excluded. This is also a relevant aspect of decent work that should be considered in future research. The validation of the DWS from different countries in SSA is important considering the diverse nature of the region. South Africa remains the dominant country where decent work is researched (see Figure 5). The reasons for this could include, first, South Africa has invested more resources in research funding and universities to support African-based researchers. Second, researchers from South Africa have access to quality data in terms of its accuracy and coverage by time and industry. Thirdly, South Africa has an embedded and relatively large formal sector that is supported by labour laws and trade union presence.
Decent work research in SSA.
Decent work deficits are a major concern in all SSA countries regardless of their level of development. As echoed by Skvarciany and Vidžiūnė (2022), SSA continues to exhibit the least stage of progress in terms of a decent work environment. The contrasts between subjective perceptions of decent work and objective measures of decent work appear to be focal in researching the experiences of individuals in relation to decent work (Pereira et al., 2019). According to Pereira et al. (2019: 12), ‘work as a social institution should always be considered as decent work instead of only focusing on performance and outputs, otherwise work seems to be an alienation of the subject’. Essentially, validation of these should encourage policy-makers and researchers to invest in research to generate new insight around decent work deficit in SSA. The need to understand the nature of working conditions within the primary sector production value chains in the region can be essential in discovering how decent work deficit is initiated. There is also an opportunity for research to help track these production value chains and generate relevant information to address the decent work deficit in the region.
The ILO framework and decent work: Implication for IR research in SSA
In this section, we discuss the findings of our review towards the advancement of decent work in SSA and set an agenda for future research. To do so, we situate our discussion within the ILO decent work framework: social protection, social dialogue, workers’ rights and employment creation (see Table 4) to highlight implications for (a) labour regulation (b) workers’ voice and representation and (c) employer's managerial prerogative.
The ILO decent work framework and the priorities for future research in SSA.a
This is not an exhaustive list of priorities.
Social protection
The literature on social protection broadly points to limited coverage. In SSA, a growing section of the working population lives and work informally and are generally deprived of decent living and working conditions (Frota, 2008). To address such concerns, advancing the needed social security infrastructure within income-generating and productivity-enhancing activities remains a priority. Social security and income are the two essential elements of social protection which help to address poverty and social segregation. According to Frota (2008), a productive job or income-generating activities alone is not sufficient to secure a decent living without social security. The ILO in the early 1950s) offered a broader prescription of social protection to entail unemployment benefits, medical care, aged pension, maternity support, family payments and support for food, housing and schooling. In national development policy discourse, specifically around the fight against social segregation and poverty, social protection is credited as a key constituent of achieving decent work. Social protection averts the inter-generational spread of poverty and the deprivation of the vulnerable (Frota, 2008). The inclusion of social protection mechanisms with economic policies helps to create an enabling environment for vulnerable workers to move out of poverty and as well as moderate the impacts of social risks particularly in low-income countries.
There is a well-documented justification to leverage social protection mechanisms to offer guarantee income and tackle workers vulnerabilities and social risks (Frota, 2008), especially psychosocial safety (workplace violence and mental health support) (Vassiley et al., 2025). Of particular focus, is the largest cohort of workers located within informal employment settings where a unified social protection system can help to upgrade workers from an absence of any form of social protection (Ayentimi et al. (2023) Kpognon et al., 2022). While economies in the region have demonstrated some policy commitment to social assistance and social security reforms to mitigate social risks, the limited social protection coverage persists, despite ongoing workforce growth.
In the face of economic and labour force informality in the region, there are substantial limitations to the spread and application of social security protection. However, the rise of new forms of work (gig work) mediated by web-based platforms are a potential new avenue for social protection extension (Ayentimi et al., 2023). Through better synergies with digital platform providers and appropriate regulatory environment to embed decent work standards, social protection can potentially reach increasing numbers of the workforce in the informal economy. Given the fact that the informal sector is the major driver of employment prospects in SSA, there is consensus at the national (country-specific) and international levels supporting calls to upgrade the working conditions of workers in the digital economy to generate better positive economic (productive economic prospects) and social impacts (poverty reduction) (Giddy, 2022; Heeks et al., 2021).
Social dialogue
Generally, there is limited research on social dialogue in SSA. This is not surprising given that the informal sector dominates and trade union presence is limited across the region. Even in those sectors with trade union presence technological advancement, globalisation, combined with changing patterns of labour relations, increased devolution of collective bargaining, and deteriorating union density, have undermined collective and co-operative industrial relations (Hermans et al., 2016; Webster et al., 2015). Of particular concern is the weak capability and difficulty in creating and sustaining social dialogue among social partners at the different levels. The emerging literature highlights drawbacks and failings around social dialogue at the firm, sectoral and national level (Hermans et al., 2016). For example, the absence of basic rights of workers’, an appropriate environment for dispute resolution, and engagement continue to undermine the processes of social dialogue at firm-specific level. At the heart of social dialogue failings at the national level within many developing countries in SSA remains institutional and political conditions that support labour union suppression, distrust and regulatory structures that undermine responsive social dialogue (Ayentimi et al., 2019; Webster et al., 2015). Social dialogue that encompasses employee voice is largely confined to formal sector wage workers and concentrated around the determination of the minimum wage (Hermans et al., 2016). There is the potential for future research to explore feasible ways for governments to leverage ad-hoc stakeholder dialogues to extend social dialogue coverage across the formal and informal sectors. The literature offers some insights and evidence of success stories where governments have engaged civil society actors through ad-hoc stakeholder dialogues in the development and application of social and economic policies (Hermans et al., 2016). The extension of social dialogue coverage to the informal economy can potentially lead to better decent work outcomes as key actors will have the opportunity to organise and influence labour policy and regulatory development to improve living and working conditions. The ILO acknowledgement of extending and reinforcing social dialogue is an important requirement for tripartite cooperation which supports productive engagement towards the advancement of decent work and employment relations. What did not emerge from the literature is the role of social dialogue in distinct contexts, as not much is known in relation to how these roles can be successfully nurtured. There is a research gap in evaluating how effective social dialogue can be developed in contexts that are essentially hostile to workers’ voice and employee engagement.
Rights at work
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Social Justice Declaration for a Fair Globalization align with the ILO's decent work framework. Rights at work are central to escaping poverty, worker exploitation and abuses of all forms, and support an individuals’ empowerment. The recent economic slowdown in SSA coupled with the increasing integration of the region into the global economy presents not only prospects, but also challenges, for the advancement of the right to decent working conditions (Macnaughton and Frey, 2011). It has been acknowledged in both development policy literature and employment relations studies that post-independence economic liberalization (neo-liberal economic policy) in SSA induced by the Bretton Woods institutions led to privatization, and deregulation (Madimutsa, 2022). The privatization of state enterprises and the deregulation of many countries in the region generated major systemic economic disparities and the spread of post-colonial capitalism leading to the growth of informal economic activities (Ayentimi et al., 2019). The unregulated informal economy makes it difficult for labour standards and basic rights to work to be extended.
The recent global COVID-19 pandemic has further worsened indecent working conditions in an environment that failed to prioritise social protection and recognize the dignity of work. Poverty denies the enjoyment of practically all human rights. The importance of international cooperation in the eradication of poverty and promotion of development is apparent (O’Reilly, 2003). The principle of international cooperation has been recognized in the International Conventions and Declarations. Importantly, both the social justice and the human rights views are central to ‘the rights at work’, driven by considerations around human dignity, inequality and poverty (O’Reilly, 2003). Achieving decent work in the Global South requires not just persons work rights, but all aspects of human rights. These rights extend beyond education, health, family life and community contribution to the fight against child labour. Sen's (2000) earlier works on the notion of workers’ rights goes beyond the limits of current and future labour legislation to recognizing the fact that individual basic rights is a core element of a just society – rights-based reasoning. This approach to rights at work offers the opportunity to look beyond labour regulations or regulatory enforcement to include different forms of labour protection – economic, political and social (O’Reilly, 2003). This approach to advancing decent work explicitly aligns with corporate social responsibility and ethical obligations and commitments that surpass labour legislation. It is central to Sen's (2000) rights-based approach which is increasingly being at the heart of the United Nations’ SDGs to advance inclusive growth and development.
Employment creation
Employment creation is a persistent theme within the decent work literature. In the region, most jobs are informal and typically precarious since many jobs are in household micro and small-scale enterprises (self-employment) or the agriculture sector where social protection is rare (Webster et al., 2016). Informal work appears to be the standard and dominated by women, who, while achieving improved educational attainment, remain under-represented in the workforce, especially in the formal sector (Ayentimi et al., 2023). In SSA, informal work represents 66% of non-agricultural jobs across many countries. Fostering the creation of decent employment in SSA remains a priority because SSA it has the world's highest rates of informal employment and working poor (Wignall et al., 2023). Given the high rate of youth unemployment and underemployment, many of these individuals have no alternative than to accept jobs that offer precarious employment conditions. Skills development for the youth and the creation of quality jobs is central to poverty reduction and inequalities, especially among the most vulnerable – people with disabilities, young people and women. Addressing the recurring issue of mismatches in vocational education and training and strengthening decent employment creation is key to the realisation of improved living standards, increased productivity, social cohesion and the SDGs (Kpognon et al., 2022). In SSA, the decent work framework must not only prioritize new decent job creation but also enhancing the quality of existing jobs (e.g., working conditions and earnings), in the informal and formal sectors. This requires a multidimensional policy approach to ensure development policy coherence and employers commitment. Azunu and Mensah (2019) found evidence of how a decent work project supported by the ILO helped created jobs, improve beneficiaries’ economic conditions, and health outcomes, and took them out of poverty.
Given that the world's highest rates of youth unemployment is in SSA, there is a strong justification for policy to be centred on increasing job opportunities and skills development, especially vocational education and training. Importantly, the conditions of work or the quality of the jobs created remains important (Kpognon et al., 2022). The focus to address the high rate of youthful unemployment and job generation should not be used as an excuse to do away with decent working conditions or to deny workers reasonable social protection measures, rights at work and the freedom of voice and organization. There is a need to ensure a balance or a reasonable trade-off in job creation whilst advancing decent working conditions (Dobbins et al., 2024; Sen, 2000).
Conclusion
Decent work as a concept covers social protection, social dialogue, employment and strengthened rights of workers is a necessity for Africa's growth and prosperity. Advancing decent work is important for addressing critical challenges around social protection, social dialogue, employment creation and strengthening the rights of workers in the region. Decent work research in SSA, though limited, has expanded over the last decade since its conceptualisation by the ILO, linked to the analysis of employment creation, social dialogue, workers’ rights and social protection as a mechanism for achieving sustainable development across the region. Primarily, high rates of youth unemployment and underemployment continue to undermine the potential demographic dividend for the region associated with having the most youthful age profiles globally (Ayentimi et al., 2023). Women in SSA are in unpaid work, dominate the informal sector, have relatively low rates of labour force participation, and dominate low-paid jobs (Ayentimi et al., 2023). It is not only the need for jobs that is important, but there are also challenges around labour apartheid. Prioritizing policies to support work–family, especially fair maternity protection will get more women into the workforce.
The analysis and debates around decent work have provided an important underpinning as a policy debate towards the advancement of a global development goal. Instituting decent work as one of the SDGs has elevated its discourse beyond national-level policy debate. Interestingly, SSA is yet to firmly institutionalize decent work as an important employment policy intent in its development programming. While our paper sets out future IR research direction in support of the analysis and development of decent work in SSA, a limitation is that the use of decent work criterion in the search is likely to exclude research that has been published within the context of SSA but did not mention the term decent work. The inclusion of only peer-reviewed studies published in English may have also excluded relevant decent work, such as conference papers, dissertations, unpublished studies and work published in other languages. Consequently, the findings of this study may not capture the full breadth and diversity of decent work scholarship in SSA. Like any review, this limitation must be considered in the interpretations of results and generalizability of our conclusions.
Footnotes
Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.
Declaration of conflicting interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Data availability statement
The research data that support this review are available online, and can also be provided by the corresponding author (AA) upon request.