Eating disorders, which involve the misuse of vast quantities of food by millions of people, are described as a direct threat to the environment. Eating disorders are also suggested as a metaphor for the psychopathology underlying our environmental crisis. In this article, the scope of the problem, its psychological and economic roots, its similarity to the environmental crisis in general, and possible solutions are described.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Aanstoos, C.
(1998). Humanistic psychology and ecopsychology. The Humanistic Psychologist, 26(1-3), 3-4.
2.
American Psychiatric Association
. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
3.
Arnow, B.
, Kenardy, J., & Agras, W. S. (1995). The Emotional Eating Scale: The development of a measure to assess coping with negative affect by eating. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 18(1), 79-90.
4.
Barber, N.
(1998). Secular changes in standards of bodily attractiveness in women: Tests of a reproductive model. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 23(4), 449-454.
5.
Berg, F. M.
(1999). Health risks associated with weight loss and obesity treatment programs. Journal of Social Issues, 55(2), 277-297.
6.
Blundell, J. E.
, & Hill, A. J. (1993). Binge eating: Psychobiological mechanisms. In C. G. Fairburn & G. T. Wilson (Eds.), Binge eating: Nature, assessment, and treatment (pp. 206-224). New York: Guilford.
7.
Breaux, C.
, & Moreno, J. K. (1994). Comparing anorectics and bulimics on measures of depression, anxiety, and anger. Eating Disorders: The Journal of Treatment and Prevention, 2(2), 158-167.
8.
Bruch, H.
(1973). Eating disorders: Obesity, anorexia nervosa, and the person within. New York: Basic Books.
9.
Bruch, H.
(1981). Developmental considerations of anorexia nervosa and obesity. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 26(4), 212-217.
10.
Bugental, J.F.T.
(1965). The search for authenticity: An existential-analytic approach to psychotherapy. New York: Irvington.
11.
Casper, R. C.
(1983). On the emergence of bulimia nervosa as a syndrome: A historical view. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 2(3), 2-16.
12.
Christensen, L.
(1993). Effects of eating behavior on mood: A review of the literature. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 14(2), 171-183.
13.
Cogan, J. C.
, & Ernsberger, P. (1999). Dieting, weight, and health: Reconceptualizing research and policy. Journal of Social Issues, 55(2), 187-205.
14.
Conn, S. A.
(1998). Living in the earth: Ecopsychology, health, and psychotherapy. The Humanistic Psychologist, 26(1-3), 179-198.
15.
Cushman, P.
(1990). Why the self is empty: Toward a historically situated psychology. American Psychologist, 45(5), 599-611.
16.
Dalle Grave, R.
, Oliosi, M., Todisco, P., & Vanderlinden, J. (1997). Selfreported traumatic experiences and dissociative symptoms in obese women with and without being eating disordered. Eating Disorders: The Journal of Treatment and Prevention, 5(2), 105-109.
17.
Dare, C.
, & Eisler, I. (1997). Family therapy for anorexia nervosa. In D. M. Garner & P. E. Garfinkel (Eds.), Handbook of treatment for eating disorders (2nd ed., pp. 307-324). New York: Guilford.
18.
Davidson, L.
(1992). Philosophical foundations of humanistic psychology. The Humanistic Psychologist, 20(2-3), 136-157.
19.
Eisler, R.
(1987). The chalice and the blade: Our history, our future. New York: HarperCollins.
20.
Eldredge, K. L.
, & Agras, W. S. (1996). Weight and shape overconcern and emotional eating in binge eating disorder. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 19(1), 73-82.
21.
Ernsberger, P.
,& Koletsky, R.J. (1999). Biomedical rationale for a wellness approach to obesity: An alternative to a focus on weight loss. Journal of Social Issues, 55(2), 221-260.
22.
Fairburn, C. G.
(1997). Interpersonal psychotherapy for bulimia nervosa. In D. M. Garner & P. E. Garfinkel (Eds.), Handbook of treatment for eating disorders (2d ed., pp. 278-294). New York: Guilford.
23.
Ford, K. A.
(1992). Bulimia in an Egyptian student: A case study. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 11(4), 407-411.
24.
Fox, M. W.
(1997). Eating with conscience: The bioethics of food. Troutdale, OR: NewSage.
25.
Garner, D. M.
(1997). Psychoeducational principles in treatment. In D. M. Garner & P. E. Garfinkel (Eds.), Handbook of treatment for eating disorders (2nd ed., pp. 145-177). New York: Guilford.
26.
Garner, D. M.
, Vitousek, K. M., & Pike, K. M. (1997). Cognitive-behavioral therapy for anorexia nervosa. In D. M. Garner & P. E. Garfinkel (Eds.), Handbook of treatment for eating disorders (2nd ed., pp. 94-144). New York: Guilford.
27.
Glendinning, C.
(1994). My name is Chellis and I’m in recovery from Western civilization. Boston: Shambhala.
28.
Glendinning, C.
(1995). Technology, trauma, and the wild. In T. Roszak, M. E. Gomes, & A. D. Kanner (Eds.), Ecopsychology: Restoring the earth, healing the mind (pp. 42-54). San Francisco: Sierra Club Books.
29.
Goldfein, J. A.
, Walsh, J. T., LaChaussee, J. L., Kissileff, H. R., & Devlin, M. J. (1993). Eating behavior in binge eating disorder. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 14(4), 427-431.
30.
Gomes, M. E.
(1998). Personal transformation and social change: Conversations with ecopsychologists in action. The Humanistic Psychologist, 26(1-3), 217-241.
31.
Goodsitt, A.
(1997). Eating disorders: A self-psychological perspective. In D. M. Garner & P. E. Garfinkel (Eds.), Handbook of treatment for eating disorders (2nd ed., pp. 205-228). New York: Guilford.
32.
Grant, K.
, Lyons, A., Landis, D., Cho, M. H., Scudiero, M., Reynolds, L., Murphy, J., & Bryant, H. (1999). Gender, body image, and depressive symptoms among low-income African American adolescents. Journal of Social Issues, 55(2), 299-316.
33.
Habermas, T.
(1992). Further evidence on early case descriptions of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 11(4), 351-359.
34.
Hawken, P.
, Lovins, A., & Lovins, L. H. (1999). Natural capitalism: Creating the next industrial revolution. Boston: Little, Brown.
35.
Hay, P.
, & Fairburn, C. (1998). The validity of the DSM-IV scheme for classifying bulimic eating disorders. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 23(1), 7-15.
36.
Howard, G.
(1992). Humanistic values and the future: Freedom and activism. The Humanistic Psychologist, 20(2-3), 260-272.
37.
Howard, G.
(2000). Adapting human lifestyles for the 21st century. American Psychologist, 55, 509-515.
38.
Huon, G. F.
, Braganza, C., Brown, L. B., Ritchie, J. E., & Roncolato, W. G. (1998). Reflections on prevention in dieting-induced disorders. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 23(4), 455-458.
39.
Iijima Hall, C. C.
(1995). Asian eyes: Body image and eating disorders of Asian and Asian American women. Eating Disorders: The Journal of Treatment and Prevention, 3(1), 8-19.
40.
Kanner, A. D.
(1999). Mount Rushmore syndrome: When narcissism rules the earth. The Humanistic Psychologist, 26(1-3), 101-121.
41.
Kanner, A. D.
, & Gomes, M. E. (1995). The all-consuming self. In T. Roszak, M. E. Gomes, & A. D. Kanner (Eds.), Ecopsychology: Restoring the earth, healing the mind (pp. 77-91). San Francisco: Sierra Club Books.
42.
Kearney-Cooke, A.
, & Striegel-Moore, R. (1997). The etiology and treatment of body image disturbance. In D. M. Garner & P. E. Garfinkel (Eds.), Handbook of treatment for eating disorders (2nd ed., pp. 295-306). New York: Guilford.
43.
Kittredge, J.
(1996). Community-supported agriculture: Rediscovering community. In W. Vitek & W. Jackson (Eds.), Rooted in the land. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
44.
Krch, F. D.
(1995). Being overweight and developing an eating disorder in the Czech Republic. Eating Disorders: The Journal of Treatment and Prevention, 3(1), 20-27.
45.
Landler, M.
(1991, September 23). The all-consuming self. Business Week, p. 81.
46.
Lazarus, S.
,& Galassi, J.P. (1994). Affect and cognitions in obese binge eaters and nonbinge eaters: The association between depression, anxiety, and bulimic cognitions. Eating Disorders: The Journal of Treatment and Prevention, 2(2), 141-157.
47.
Lee, S.
(1996). Clinical lessons from the cross-cultural study of anorexia nervosa. Eating Disorders Review, 7(3), 1-4.
48.
Marcus, M. D.
(1993). Binge eating in obesity. In C. G. Fairburn & G. T. Wilson (Eds.), Binge eating: Nature, assessment, and treatment (pp. 77-96). New York: Guilford.
49.
Marcus, M. D.
(1997). Adapting treatment for patients with binge-eating disorder. In D. M. Garner & P. E. Garfinkel (Eds.), Handbook of treatment for eating disorders (2nd ed., pp. 484-493). New York: Guilford.
50.
Maslow, A. H.
(1968). Toward a psychology of being (2nd ed.). New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
51.
McFarlane, T.
, Polivy, J., & McCabe, R. E. (1999). Help, not harm: Psychological foundation for a nondieting approach toward health. Journal of Social Issues, 55(2), 261-276.
52.
McKenzie-Mohr, D.
(2000). Fostering sustainable behavior through community-based social marketing. American Psychologist, 55,531-537.
53.
Metzner, R.
(1995). The psychopathology of the human-nature relationship. In T. Roszak, M. E. Gomes, & A. D. Kanner (Eds.), Ecopsychology: Restoring the earth, healing the mind (pp. 55-67). San Francisco: Sierra Club Books.
54.
Metzner, R.
(1998). The place and the story: Ecopsychology and bioregionalism. The Humanistic Psychologist, 26(1-3), 35-49.
55.
Metzner, R.
(1999). Green psychology: Transforming our relationship to the earth. Rochester, VT: Park Street.
56.
Miller, W. C.
(1999). Fitness and fatness in relation to health: Implications for a paradigm shift. Journal of Social Issues, 55(2), 207-219.
57.
Millman, M.
(1980). Such a pretty face: Being fat in America. New York: Norton.
58.
Moulton, P.
, Moulton, M.,& Roach, S. (1998). Eating disorders: A means for seeking approval?Eating Disorders: The Journal of Treatment and Prevention, 6(4), 319-327.
59.
Mumford, D. B.
, Whitehouse, A. M., & Choudry, I. Y. (1992). Survey of eating disorders in English-medium schools in Lahore, Pakistan. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 11(2), 183-184.
60.
Murray, S. H.
, Touyz, S. W., & Beumont, P.J.V. (1995). The influence of personal relationships on women’s eating behavior and body satisfactions. Eating Disorders: The Journal of Treatment and Prevention, 3(3), 243-252.
61.
O’Hara, M.
(1992). Relational humanism: A psychology for a pluralistic world. The Humanistic Psychologist, 20(2-3), 439-446.
62.
Orbach, S.
(1978). Fat is a feminist issue. New York: Berkley.
63.
Orbach, S.
(1985). Accepting the symptom: A feminist psychoanalytic treatment of anorexia nervosa. In D. M. Garner & P. E. Garfinkel (Eds.), Handbook of treatment for eating disorders (pp. 83-104). New York: Guilford.
64.
Oskamp, S.
(2000). A sustainable future for humanity? How can psychology help?American Psychologist, 55, 496-508.
65.
Phelps, L.
, Johnston, L. S., & Augustyniak, K. (1999). Prevention of eating disorders: Identification of predictor variables. Eating Disorders: The Journal of Treatment and Prevention, 7(2), 99-108.
66.
Pilisuk, M.
(2001). Ecological psychology, caring, and the boundaries of the person. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 41(2), 25-37.
67.
Pilisuk, M.
, & Tardella, M. (2001). Ecological psychology and humanistic psychology. In K. Schneider, J.F.T. Bugental, & J. Fraser Pierson (Eds.), The handbook of humanistic psychology: Leading edges in theory, research, and practice. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
68.
Piran, N.
(1996). The reduction of preoccupation with body weight and shape in schools: A feminist approach. Eating Disorders: The Journal of Treatment and Prevention, 4(4), 323-333.
69.
Reto, C.S.
, Dalenberg, C.J.,& Coe, M.T. (1993). Dissociation and physical abuse as predictors of bulimic symptomatology and impulse dys-regulation. Eating Disorders: The Journal of Treatment and Prevention, 1(3-4), 226-239.
70.
Riebel, L. K.
(1985). Eating disorders and personal constructs. Transactional Analysis Journal, 15(1), 42-47.
71.
Riebel, L. K.
(1988). Understanding eating disorders: A guide for the healthcare professional. Sacramento, CA: Robert D. Anderson.
72.
Riebel, L. K.
(1989). Communication skills for eating disordered clients. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 26(1), 69-74.
73.
Riebel, L. K.
(1990). The dropout problem in outpatient psychotherapy groups for bulimics and compulsive eaters. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 37(2), 404-410.
74.
Riebel, L. K.
(2000). Hidden grandiosity in bulimics. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 37 (2), 180-188.
75.
Robinson, B. E.
, Bacon, J. G., & O’Reilly, J. (1993). Fat phobia: Understanding and changing anti-fat attitudes. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 14(4), 467-480.
76.
Roszak, T.
(1995). Where psyche meets Gaia. In T. Roszak, M. E. Gomes, & A. D. Kanner (Eds.), Ecopsychology: Restoring the earth, healing the mind (pp. 1-17). San Francisco: Sierra Club Books.
77.
Russell, G.F.M.
(1997). The history of bulimia nervosa. In D. M. Garner & P. E. Garfinkel (Eds.), Handbook of treatment for eating disorders (2nd ed., pp. 11-24). New York: Guilford.
78.
Sampat, P.
(1999). World ad spending climbs. In L. R. Brown, M. Renner, & B. Halweil (Eds.), Vital signs: The environmental trends that are shaping our future (pp. 70-71). New York: Norton.
79.
Sands, S.
(1989). Eating disorders and female development: A self-psychological perspective. In A. Goldberg (Ed.), Dimensions of self experience: Progress in self psychology (Vol. 5, pp. 75-103). Hillsdale, NJ: Analytic.
80.
Sands, S.
(1991). Bulimia, dissociation, and empathy: A self-psychological view. In C. Johnson (Ed.), Psychodynamic treatment of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa (pp. 34-50). New York: Guilford.
81.
Seligman, M.E.P.
, & Czikszentmihaly, M. (2000). Positive psychology: An introduction. American Psychologist, 55(1), 5-14.
82.
Selvini Palazzoli, M.
(1978). Self-starvation. New York: Jason Aronson.
83.
Shaw, H.
, & Waller, G. (1995). The media’s impact on body image: Implications for prevention and treatment. Eating Disorders: The Journal of Treatment and Prevention, 3(2), 115-123.
84.
Shepard, P.
(1982). Nature and madness. Athens: University of Georgia Press.
85.
Shisslak, C. M.
, Crago, M., & Estes, L. S. (1995). The spectrum of eating disturbances. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 18(3), 209-219.
86.
Silverstein, B.
, Peterson, B., & Perdue, L. (1986). Some correlates of the thin standard of bodily attractiveness for women. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 5(5), 895-905.
87.
Spretnak, C.
(1986). The spiritual dimensions of green politics. Santa Fe, NM: Bear.
88.
Spretnak, C.
(1997). The resurgence of the real: Body, nature, and place in a hypermodern world. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
89.
Steiger, H.
, Leung, F., & Thibodeau, J. (1993). Prognostic value of pretreatment social adaptation in bulimia nervosa. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 14(3), 269-276.
90.
Steiner-Adair, C.
, & Purcell, A. (1996). Approaches to mainstreaming eating disorders prevention. Eating Disorders: The Journal of Treatment and Prevention, 4(4), 294-309.
91.
Stern, P. C.
(2000). Psychology and the science of human-environment interaction. American Psychologist, 55, 523-530.
92.
Stunkard, A. J.
(1993). A history of binge eating. In C. G. Fairburn & G. T. Wilson (Eds.), Binge eating: Nature, assessment, and treatment (pp. 15-34). New York: Guilford.
93.
Sugarman, A.
, & Kurash, C. (1982). The body as a transitional object in bulimia. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 1, 57-67.
94.
Thompson, J. K.
, & Heinberg, L. J. (1999). The media’s influence on body image disturbance and eating disorders: We’ve reviled them, now can we rehabilitate them?Journal of Social Issues, 55(2), 339-353.
95.
Vanderlinden, J.
, Vandereycken, W., van Dyck, R., & Vertommen, H. (1993). Dissociative experiences and trauma in eating disorders. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 13(2), 187-193.
96.
Walsh, B. T.
(1993). Binge eating in bulimia nervosa. In C. G. Fairburn & G. T. Wilson (Eds.), Binge eating: Nature, assessment, and treatment (pp. 37-49). New York: Guilford.
97.
Wilson, G. T.
, Fairburn, C. G., & Agras, S. W. (1997). Cognitive-behavioral therapy for bulimia nervosa. In D. M. Garner & P. E. Garfinkel (Eds.), Handbook of treatment for eating disorders (pp. 67-93). New York: Guilford.
98.
Winter, D. D.
(2000). Some big ideas for some big problems. American Psychologist, 55, 516-522.
99.
Wiseman, C. V.
, Gray, J. J., Mosimann, J. E., & Ahrens, A. H. (1992). Cultural expectations of thinness in women: An update. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 11(1), 85-89.
100.
Wolf, N.
(1991). The beauty myth: How images of beauty are used against women. New York: William Morrow.
101.
Wooley, S. C.
, & Wooley, O. W. (1984). Should obesity be treated at all? In A. J. Stunkard & E. Stellar (Eds.), Eating and its disorders. New York: Raven.
102.
Worldwatch Institute
(2000). State of the World 2000. New York: Norton.
