Despite the importance of employment for shaping mental health over the life course, little is known about how the mental health benefits of employment change as individuals age through their prime employment and child-rearing years. This study examines the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, 1979 Cohort (N = 8,931), following respondents from their late 20s to mid-50s. Results suggest that among women, the aging of children is especially salient for shaping the mental health consequences of employment. Young children diminish the protective effect of mothers’ full- and part-time employment, but the salubrious effects of paid work increase as children get older. The benefit of employment for men’s mental health also changes over time, but it is the aging of men themselves rather than their children that alters the magnitude of full-time employment’s protective effect. Findings suggest the contribution of employment to life course mental health remains tethered to traditional gender roles.
AllenTammy D.FinkelsteinLisa M.2014. “Work–family Conflict among Members of Full-time Dual-earner Couples: An Examination of Family Life Stage, Gender, and Age.”Journal of Occupational Health Psychology19(3):376–84.
2.
AneshenselCarol S.FrerichsRalph R.ClarkVirginia A.1981. “Family Roles and Sex Differences in Depression.”Journal of Health and Social Behavior22(4):379–93.
3.
ArnoldB. BakkerEvangeliaDemerouti. 2007. “The Job Demands–Resources Model: State of the Art.”Journal of Managerial Psychology22(3):309–28.
4.
AughinbaughAlison. 2004. “The Impact of Attrition on the Children of the NLSY79.”Journal of Human Resources39(2):536–63.
5.
BianchiSuzanneRobinsonJohn P.MilkieMelissa A.2006. Changing Rhythms of American Family Life. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
6.
BrücknerHannahMayerKarl Ulrich. 2005. “De-standardization of the Life Course: What It Might Mean? And If It Means Anything, Whether It Actually Took Place?”Advances in Life Course Research9:27–53.
7.
BulandaRonald E.LippmannStephen. 2012. “The Timing of Childbirth and Family-to-work Conflict.”Sociological Focus45(3):185–202.
8.
CarrDeborah. 2002. “The Psychological Consequences of Work–Family Trade-offs for Three Cohorts of Men and Women.”Social Psychology Quarterly65(2):103–24.
9.
ClarkePhilippaMarshallVictorHouseJamesLantzPaula. 2011. “The Social Structuring of Mental Health over the Adult Life Course: Advancing Theory in the Sociology of Aging.”Social Forces89(4):1287–313.
10.
ClarkePhilippaWheatonBlair. 2005. “Mapping Social Context on Mental Health Trajectories through Adulthood.”Advances in Life Course Research9:269–301.
11.
DamaskeSarahFrechAdrianne. 2016. “Women’s Work Pathways across the Life Course.”Demography53(2):365–91.
12.
DooleyDavidPrauseJoannHam-RowbottomKathleen A.2000. “Underemployment and Depression: Longitudinal Relationships.”Journal of Health and Social Behavior41(4):421–36.
13.
ElderGlen H.Jr.1975. “Age Differentiation and the Life Course.”Annual Review of Sociology1:165–90.
14.
FalbaT. A.SindelarJ. L.GalloW. T.2009. “Work Expectations, Realizations, and Depression in Older Workers.”Journal of Mental Health Policy and Economics12(4):175–86.
15.
FrechAdrianneDamaskeSarah. 2012. “The Relationships between Mothers’ Work Pathways and Physical and Mental Health.”Journal of Health and Social Behavior53(4):396–412.
16.
FriscoM. L.WedenM. M.LippertA. M.BurnettK. D.2012. “The Multidimensional Relationship between Early Adult Body Weight and Women’s Childbearing Experiences.”Social Science & Medicine74(11):1703–11.
17.
GeorgeLinda K.2014. “Taking Time Seriously: A Call to Action in Mental Health Research.”Journal of Health and Social Behavior55(3):251–64.
18.
GlavinPaulSchiemanScottReidSarah. 2011. “Boundary-spanning Work Demands and Their Consequences for Guilt and Psychological Distress.”Journal of Health and Social Behavior52(1):43–57.
19.
GoodeWilliam J.1960. “A Theory of Role Strain.”American Sociological Review25(4):483–96.
20.
HalabyCharles N.2004. “Panel Models in Sociological Research: Theory into Practice.”Annual Review of Sociology30:507–44.
21.
HaysSharon. 1996. The Cultural Contradictions of Motherhood. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
22.
HibbardJudith H.PopeClyde R.1991. “Effect of Domestic and Occupational Roles on Morbidity and Mortality.”Social Science & Medicine32(7):805–11.
23.
HigginsChristopherDuxburyLindaLeeCatherine. 1994. “Impact of Life-cycle Stage and Gender on the Ability to Balance Work and Family Responsibilities.”Family Relations43(2):144–50.
24.
HochschildArlie. 1989. The Second Shift: Working Parents and the Revolution at Home. New York: Viking.
25.
KalilArielKunzJames. 2002. “Teenage Childbearing, Marital Status, and Depressive Symptoms in Later Life.”Child Development73(6):1748–60.
26.
KallebergArne L.LoscoccoKaryn A.1983. “Aging, Values, and Rewards: Explaining Age Differences in Job Satisfaction.”American Sociological Review48(1):78–90.
27.
KlumbPetra L.LampertThomas. 2004. “Women, Work, and Well-being 1950–2000: A Review and Methodological Critique.”Social Science & Medicine58(6):1007–24.
28.
LawrenceBarbara S.1984. “Age Grading: The Implicit Organizational Timetable.”Journal of Occupational Behaviour5:23–35.
29.
LiljegrenMatsEkbergKerstin. 2008. “The Longitudinal Relationship between Job Mobility, Perceived Organizational Justice and Health.”BMC Public Health8:164.
30.
LundbergShellyRoseElaina. 2002. “The Effects of Sons and Daughters on Men’s Labor Supply and Wages.”Review of Economics and Statistics84(2):251–68.
31.
MarksStephen R.1977. “Multiple Roles and Role Strain: Some Notes on Human Energy, Time and Commitment.”American Sociological Review42(6):921–36.
32.
McDonaldSteveMairChristine A.2010. “Social Capital across the Life Course: Age and Gendered Patterns of Network Resources.”Sociological Forum25(2):335–59.
33.
MilkieMelissa A.PeltolaPia. 1999. “Playing All the Roles: Gender and the Work–Family Balancing Act.”Journal of Marriage and Family61(2):476–90.
34.
MirowskyJohn. 1996. “Age and the Gender Gap in Depression.”Journal of Health and Social Behavior37(4):362–80.
35.
MirowskyJohnRossCatherine E.1992. “Age and Depression.”Journal of Health and Social Behavior33(3):187–205.
36.
MirowskyJohnRossCatherine E.2002. “Depression, Parenthood, and Age at First Birth.”Social Science & Medicine54(8):1281–98.
37.
MoenPhyllisDempster-McClainDonnaWilliamsRobin M.Jr.1992. “Successful Aging: A Life-course Perspective on Women’s Multiple Roles and Health.”American Journal of Sociology97(6):1612–38.
38.
MoenPhyllisChermackKelly. 2005. “Gender Disparities in Health: Strategic Selection, Careers, and Cycles of Control.”Journal of Gerontology: Series B60B(Special Issue II):99–108.
39.
MunasingheLalithReifTaniaHenriquesAlice. 2008. “Gender Gap in Wage Returns to Job Tenure and Experience.”Labour Economics15(6):1296–1316.
40.
NomaguchiKei M.MilkieMelissa A.BianchiSuzanne E.2005. “Time Strains and Psychological Well-being: Do Dual-earner Mothers and Fathers Differ?”Journal of Family Issues26(6):756–92.
41.
PadavicIreneReskinBarbara. 2002. Women and Men at Work. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press.
42.
PavalkoEliza K.SmithBrad. 1999. “The Rhythm of Work: Health Effects of Women’s Work Dynamics.”Social Forces77(3):1141–62.
43.
PlaisierI.BeekmanA. T. F.de BruijnJ. G. M.de GraafR.ten HaveM.SmitJ. H.van DyckR.PenninxB. W. J. H.2008. “The Effect of Social Roles on Mental Health: A Matter of Quantity or Quality?”Journal of Affective Disorders111(2/3):261–70.
44.
PlaisierI.de BruijnJ. G. M.SmitJ. H.de GraafR.ten HaveM.BeekmanA. T. F.van DyckR.PenninxB. W. J. H.2008. “Work and Family Roles and the Association with Depressive and Anxiety Disorders: Differences between Men and Women.”Journal of Affective Disorders105(1/3):63–72.
45.
PudrovskaTetyanaKarrakerAmelia. 2014. “Gender, Job Authority, and Depression.”Journal of Health and Social Behavior55(4):424–41.
46.
RadloffL. S.1977. “The CES-D Scale: A Self-report Depression Scale for Research in the General Population.”Applied Psychological Measurement1(3):385–401.
47.
ReskinBarbara F.CovermanShelley. 1985. “Sex and Race in the Determinants of Psychophysical Distress: A Reappraisal of the Sex-role Hypothesis.”Social Forces63(4):1038–59.
48.
RossCatherine E.MirowskyJohn. 1988. “Child Care and Emotional Adjustment to Wives’ Employment.”Journal of Health and Social Behavior29(2):127–38.
49.
RossCatherine E.MirowskyJohn. 1995. “Does Employment Affect Health?”Journal of Health and Social Behavior36(3):230–43.
50.
RossCatherine E.MirowskyJohnHuberJoan. 1983. “Dividing Work, Sharing Work, and In-between: Marriage Patterns and Depression.”American Sociological Review48(6):809–23.
51.
SchiemanScottvan GundyKarenTaylorJohn. 2001. “Status, Role, and Resource Explanations for Age Patterns in Psychological Distress.”Journal of Health and Social Behavior42(1):80–96.
52.
SchiemanScottMilkieMelissa A.GlavinPaul. 2009. “When Work Interferes with Life: Work–Nonwork Interference and the Influence of Work-related Demands and Resources.”American Sociological Review74(6):966–88.
53.
SchnittkerJason. 2007. “Working More and Feeling Better: Women’s Health, Employment, and Family Life, 1974–2004.”American Sociological Review72(2):221–38.
54.
StataCorp. 2015. Stata 14 Base Reference Manual. College Station, TX: Stata Press.
55.
StonePamela. 2007. Opting Out: Why Women Really Quit Careers and Head Home. Berkeley: University of California Press.
56.
ThoitsPeggy A.1986. “Multiple Identities: Examining Gender and Marital Status Differences in Distress.”American Sociological Review51(2):259–72.
57.
TownsendNicholas. 2002. Package Deal: Marriage, Work and Fatherhood in Men’s Lives. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
58.
UmbersonDebraPudrovskaTetyanaReczekCorinne. 2010. “Parenthood, Childlessness, and Well-being: A Life Course Perspective.”Journal of Marriage and Family72(3):612–29.
UsdanskyMargaret L.GordonRachel A.WangXueGluzmanAnna. 2012. “Depression Risk among Mothers of Young Children: The Role of Employment Preferences, Labor Force Status and Job Quality.”Journal of Family and Economic Issues33(1):83–94.
61.
VoydanoffPatriciaDonnellyBrenda W.1989. “Work and Family Roles and Psychological Distress.”Journal of Marriage and Family51(4):923–32.
62.
WaldronIngridWeissChristopher C.HughesMary Elizabeth. 1998. “Interacting Effects of Multiple Roles on Women’s Health.”Journal of Health and Social Behavior39(3):216–36.
63.
WhiteIan R.RoystonPatrickWoodAngela M.2011. “Multiple Imputation Using Chained Equations: Issues and Guidance for Practice.”Statistics in Medicine30(4):377–99.
64.
WinshipChristopherRadbillLarry. 1994. “Sampling Weights and Regression Analysis.”Sociological Methods & Research23(2):230–57.
65.
WooldridgeJeffrey M.2009. Introductory Econometrics: A Modern Approach. Mason, OH: South-Western Cengage Learning.
66.
YangYang. 2007. “Is Old Age Depressing? Growth Trajectories and Cohort Variations in Late-life Depression.”Journal of Health and Social Behavior48(1):16–32.
67.
YangYangLeeLinda C.2009. “Sex and Race Disparities in Health: Cohort Variations in Life Course Patterns.”Social Forces87(4):2093–2124.
ZimmermanFrederick J.ChristakisDimitri A.Vander StoepAnn. 2004. “Tinker, Tailor, Soldier, Patient: Work Attributes and Depression Disparities among Young Adults.”Social Science & Medicine58(10):1889–1901.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
