The high levels of depression among teenage mothers have received considerable research attention in smaller targeted samples, but a large-scale examination of the complex relationship between adolescent childbearing and psychological distress that explores bidirectional causality is needed. Using the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health) and the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study—Birth Cohort, we found that teenage mothers had higher levels of distress than their childless adolescent peers and adult mothers, but the experience of teenage childbearing did not appear to be the cause. Rather, teenage mothers' distress levels were already higher than their peers before they became pregnant, and they remained higher after childbearing and into early and middle adulthood. We also found that distress did not increase the likelihood of adolescent childbearing except among poor teenagers. In this group, experiencing high levels of distress markedly increased the probability of becoming a teenage mother. Among nonpoor teenage girls, the relationship between distress and subsequent teenage childbearing was spurious.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
BearmanPeter S.JonesJoUdryJ. Richard1997.
“The National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health: Research Design.”Chapel Hill, NC:
Carolina Population Center.
2.
BelleDeborahDoucetJoanne2003.
“Poverty, Inequality, and Discrimination as Sources of Depression among U.S. Women.”Psychology of Women Quarterly27:
101–13.
3.
BoothAlanRustenbachElisaMcHaleSusan2008.
“Early Family Transitions and Depressive Symptom Changes from Adolescence to Early Adulthood.”Journal of Marriage and the Family70:
3–14.
4.
BrownJoanna D.WoodsElizabeth R.BumanMatthew P.HarrisSion KimCoxJoanne E.2007.
“Depression and Social Support over Time in Adolescent Mothers.”Journal of Adolescent Health40:
S44–S44.
5.
CubbinCatherineSantelliJohnBrindisClaire D.BravemanPaula2005.
“Neighborhood Context and Sexual Behaviors among Adolescents: Findings from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health.”Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health37:
125–34.
6.
DealLisa W.HoltVictoria L.1998.
“Young Maternal Age and Depressive Symptoms: Results from the 1988 National Maternal and Infant Health Survey.”American Journal of Public Health88:
266–70.
7.
ElderGlen H.Jr.ShanahanMichael J.2006.
“The Life Course and Human Development.”
Pp. 665–715
in Handbook of Child Psychology.Vol. 1,
Theoretical Models of Human Development,
edited by LernerR. M.DamonW..
Hoboken, NJ:
John Wiley & Sons.
8.
EshbaughElaine M.2006.
“Predictors of Depressive Symptomatology among Low-Income Adolescent Mothers.”Archives of Women's Mental Health9:
339–42.
9.
EshbaughElaine M.LempersJacquesLuzeGayle J.2006.
“Objective and Self-Perceived Resources as Predictors of Depression among Urban and Non-Urban Adolescent Mothers.”Journal of Youth and Adolescence35:
839–47.
10.
FalciChristinaMortimerJeylan2007.
“Teenage Parents and Depressed Mood in Adulthood: Gender, Selection, Stressors and Resources.”Presented at the annual meeting of the American Sociological Association,
August 11, New York, NY.
11.
FosterHollyHaganJohnBrooks-GunnJeanne2008.
“Growing up Fast: Stress Exposure and Subjective & lsquo;Weathering’ in Emerging Adulthood.”Journal of Health and Social Behavior49:
162–77.
12.
FurstenbergFrank F.Jr.2003.
“Teenage Childbearing as a Public Issue and Private Concern.”Annual Review of Sociology29:
23–39.
13.
GeronimusArline T.KorenmanSanders1992.
“The Socioeconomic Consequences of Teen Childbearing Reconsidered.”Quarterly Journal of Economics107:
1187–1214.
14.
GroggerJeffBronarsStephen1993.
“The Socioeconomic Consequences of Teenage Childbearing: Findings from a Natural Experiment.”Family Planning Perspectives25:
156–61,
174.
15.
HallforsDenise D.WallerMartha W.BauerDanielFordCarol A.HalpernCarolyn T.2005.
“Which Comes First in Adolescence—Sex and Drugs or Depression?”American Journal of Preventive Medicine29:
163–70.
16.
HarrisKathleen Mullan1999.
“The Health Status and Risk Behaviors of Adolescents in Immigrant Families.”
Pp. 286–347
in Children of Immigrants: Health, Adjustment, and Public Assistance,
edited by HernandezD. J..
Washington, DC:
National Academy Press.
17.
HeathD. TerriMcKenryPatrick C.LeighGeoffery K.1995.
“The Consequences of Adolescent Parenthood on Men's Depression, Parental Satisfaction, and Fertility in Adulthood.”Journal of Social Service Research20:
127–48.
18.
HoffmanSaul D.1998.
“Teenage Childbearing Is Not So Bad after All & hellip; Or Is It? A Review of the New Literature.”Family Planning Perspectives30:
236–39,
243.
19.
HolubChristina K.KershawTrace S.EthierKathleen A.LewisJessica B.MilanStephanieIckovicsJeannette R.2007.
“Prenatal and Parenting Stress on Adolescent Maternal Adjustment: Identifying a High-Risk Subgroup.”Maternal and Child Health Journal11:
153–59.
20.
HotzV. JosephMcElroySusan WilliamsSandersSeth G.2005.
“Teenage Childbearing and Its Life Cycle Consequences: Exploiting a Natural Experiment.”Journal of Human Resources40:
683–715.
21.
HowellElizabeth A.MoraPablo A.HorowitzCarol R.LeventhalHoward2005.
“Racial and Ethnic Differences in Factors Associated with Early Postpartum Depressive Symptoms.”Obstetrics and Gynecology105:
1442–50.
22.
Hubbs-TaitLauraOsofskyJoy D.HannDella M.CulpAnne McDonald1994.
“Predicting Behavior Problems and Social Competence in Children of Adolescent Mothers.”Family Relations43:
439–46.
23.
HudsonDiane BrageElekSusan M.Campbell-GrossmanChristie2000.
“Depression, Self-Esteem, Loneliness and Social Support among Adolescent Mothers Participating in the New Parents Project.”Adolescence35:
445–53.
24.
JohnsonMonica KirkpatrickMollbornStefanie2009.
“Growing up Faster, Feeling Older: Hardship in Childhood and Adolescence.”Social Psychology Quarterly72:
39–60.
25.
KalilArielKunzJames2002.
“Teenage Childbearing, Marital Status, and Depressive Symptoms in Later Life.”Child Development73:
1748–60.
26.
KaufmannRachel B.SpitzAlison M.StraussLilo T.MorrisLeoSantelliJohn S.KooninLisa M.MarksJames S.1998.
“The Decline in U.S. Teen Pregnancy Rates, 1990–1995.”Pediatrics102:
1141–47.
27.
KesslerRonald C.BerglundPatricia A.FosterCindy L.SaundersWilliam B.StangPaul E.WaltersEllen E.1997.
“Social Consequences of Psychiatric Disorders, II: Teenage Parenthood.”American Journal of Psychiatry154:
1405–11.
28.
LehrerJocelyn A.ShrierLydia A.GortmakerStevenBukaStephen2006.
“Depressive Symptoms as a Longitudinal Predictor of Sexual Risk Behaviors among U.S. Middle and High School Students.”Pediatrics118:
189–200.
29.
LinkBruce G.PhelanJo1995.
“Social Conditions as Fundamental Causes of Disease.”Journal of Health and Social Behavior35:
80–94.
30.
LorantV.DeliegeD.EatonW.RobertA.PhillippotP.AnsseauM.2003.
“Socioeconomic Inequalities in Depression: A Meta-Analysis.”American Journal of Epidemiology157:
98–112.
31.
MariniMargaret Mooney1984.
“Age and Sequencing Norms in the Transition to Adulthood.”Social Forces63:
229–44.
32.
MaysVickie M.CochranSusan D.2001.
“Mental Health Correlates of Perceived Discrimination among Lesbian, Gay and Bisexual Adults in the United States.”American Journal of Public Health11:
1869–76.
33.
MeierAnn M.2007.
“Adolescent First Sex and Subsequent Mental Health.”American Journal of Sociology112:
1811–47.
34.
MilanStephanieIckovicsJeannette R.KershawTraceLewisJessicaMeadeChristinaEthierKathleen2004.
“Prevalence, Course, and Predictors of Emotional Distress in Pregnant and Parenting Adolescents.”Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology72:
328–40.
35.
Miller-JohnsonShariWinnDonna-MarrieCoieJohnMaumary-GremaudAnneHymanClaireTerryRobertLochmanJohn1999.
“Motherhood during the Teen Years: A Development Perspective on Risk Factors for Childbearing.”Development and Psychopathology11:
85–100.
36.
Mollborn, Stefanie.2009.
“American Adults' Norms about Nonmarital Pregnancy and Their Influence on Willingness to Provide Resources to Parents.”Journal of Marriage and Family71:
122–34.
37.
MowbrayCarolOysermanDaphnaBybeeDeborahMacFarlanePeter2002.
“Parenting of Mothers with a Serious Mental Illness: Differential Effects of Diagnosis, Clinical History, and Other Mental Health Variables.”Social Work Research26:
225–40.
38.
National Center for Education Statistics.2006.
“ECLS-B Longitudinal 9-Month-2-Year Restricted-Use Data File and Electronic Codebook (CD-ROM).”
NCES 2006–044.
39.
NeugartenBernice L.MooreJoan W.LoweJohn C.1965.
“Age Norms, Age Constraints, and Adult Socialization.”American Journal of Sociology70:
710–17.
40.
RadloffLenore Sawyer1977.
“The CES-D Scale: A Self-Report Depression Scale for Research in the General Population.”Applied Psychological Measurement1:
385–401.
41.
ReisJ1988.
“Correlates of Depression According to Maternal Age.”Journal of Genetic Psychology149:
535–45.
42.
RibarDavid C.1994.
“Teenage Fertility and High School Completion.”Review of Economics and Statistics76:
413–24.
43.
RindfussRonald R.SwicegoodC. GaryRosenfeldRachel A.1987.
“Disorder in the Life Course: How Common and Does It Matter?”American Sociological Review52:
785–801.
44.
SchmidtR. M.WeimannC. M.RickertV. I.SmithE. O.2006.
“Moderate to Severe Depressive Symptoms among Adolescent Mothers Followed Four Years Postpartum.”Journal of Adolescent Health38:
712–18.
45.
SetterstenRichard A.Jr.1998.
“A Time to Leave Home and a Time Never to Return? Age Constraints on the Living Arrangements of Young Adults.”Social Forces76:
1373–1400.
46.
SetterstenRichard A.Jr.2003.
“Age Structuring and the Rhythm of the Life Course.”
Pp. 81–98
in Handbook of the Life Course,
edited by MortimerJ. T.ShanahanM. J..
New York:
Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.
47.
ShanahanMichael J.2000.
“Pathways to Adulthood in Changing Societies: Variability and Mechanisms in Life Course Perspective.”Annual Review of Sociology26:
667–92.
48.
ShrierLydia A.HarrisSion KimSternbergMayaBeardsleeWilliam R.2001.
“Associations of Depression, Self-Esteem and Substance Use with Sexual Risk among Adolescents.”Preventive Medicine33:
179–89.
49.
SillsMarion R.ShetterlySusanXuStanleyMagidDavidKempeAllison2007.
“Association between Parental Depression and Children's Health Care Use.”Pediatrics119:
E829-E836.
50.
SmithMarjorie2004.
“Parental Mental Health: Disruptions to Parenting and Outcomes for Children.”Child and Family Social Work9:
3–11.
51.
TroutmanBeth R.CutronaCarolyn E.1990.
“Nonpsychotic Postpartum Depression among Adolescent Mothers.”Journal of Abnormal Psychology99:
69–78.
52.
TurnerR. JaySorensonAnn M.TurnerJ. Blake2000.
“Social Contingencies in Mental Health: A Seven-Year Follow-up Study of Teenage Mothers.”Journal of Marriage and the Family62:
777–91.
53.
VicaryJudith R.CornealDevon A.2001.
“A Comparison of Young Women's Psychosocial Status Based on Age of Their First Childbirth.”Family and Community Health24:
73–84.
54.
WilliamsDavid R.NeighborsHarold W.JacksonJames S.2003.
“Racial/Ethnic Discrimination and Health: Findings from Community Studies.”American Journal of Public Health93:
200–208.
55.
WootenDavid B.2006.
“From Labeling Possessions to Possessing Labels: Ridicule and Socialization among Adolescents.”Journal of Consumer Research33:
188–98.
56.
YamaguchiKazuoKandelDenise1987.
“Drug Use and Other Determinants of Premarital Pregnancy and Its Outcome: A Dynamic Analysis of Competing Life Events.”Journal of Marriage and the Family49:
257–70.
