Age and Gender Differences in the Well-Being of Midlife and Aging Parents with Children with Mental Health or Developmental Problems: Report of a National Study ∗
Restricted accessResearch articleFirst published online September, 2008
Age and Gender Differences in the Well-Being of Midlife and Aging Parents with Children with Mental Health or Developmental Problems: Report of a National Study ∗
Using data from the Study of Midlife in the United States (MIDUS), this article examines: (1) the effect of having children with developmental or mental health problems on parents mental and physical health, (2) the extent to which this effect varies by parental age and gender, and (3) the effects of disability-related factors on the well-being of parents of children with disabilities. Compared to parents of non-disabled children, parents of disabled children experienced significantly higher levels of negative affect, marginally poorer psychological well-being, and significantly more somatic symptoms, controlling for sociodemographic variables. Mothers did not differ from fathers in their well-being. Older parents were significantly less likely to experience the negative effect of having a disabled child than younger parents, suggesting an age-related attenuation of the stress of non-normative parenting.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
AntonucciTony C.1990.
“Social Supports and Social Relationships.”
Pp. 205–226 in
Handbook of Aging and the Social Sciences,
edited by BinstockR. H.GeorgeL. K.San Diego, CA:
Academic Press
2.
BakerBruce L.HellerTracy L.1996.
“Preschool Children with Externalizing Behaviors: Experience of Fathers and Mothers.”Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology24:
513–32
3.
BaruschA. S.SpaidW. M.1989.
“Gender Differences in Caregiving: Why Do Wives Report Greater Burden?”The Gerontologist29:
667–76
4.
BrimOrville GilbertRyffCarol D.KesslerRonald C.2004.
How Healthy Are We? A National Study of Well-Being at Midlife.Chicago, IL:
University of Chicago Press
5.
CampbellA.ConverseP. E.RodgersW. L.1976.
The Quality of American Life.New York:
Russell Sage Foundation
6.
CarstensenLauraCharlesSusan T.1998.
“Emotions in the Second Half of Life.”Current Directions in Psychological Science7:
144–49
7.
ClarkRobin E.DrakeRobert E.1994.
“Expenditures of Time and Money by Families of People with Severe Mental Illness and Substance Use Disorders.”Community Mental Health Journal30:
145–63
8.
CookJudith A.LefleyHarriet P.PickettSusan A.CohlerBertram J.1994.
“Age and Family Burden among Parents of Offspring with Severe Mental Illness.”American Journal of Orthopsychiatry64:
435–47
9.
Dilworth-AndersonPeggyeGoodwinPaula Y.WilliamsSharon Wallace2004.
“Can Culture Help Explain the Physical Health Effects of Caregiving over Time among African American Caregivers?”Journal of Gerontology: Social Sciences59B:
S138–S145
10.
DraperB. M.PoulosC. J.ColeA. D.PoulosR. G.EhrlichF.1992.
“A Comparison of Caregivers for Elderly Stroke and Dementia Victims.”Journal of the American Geriatrics Society40:
896–901
11.
DrenteaPatricia2005.
“Work Activity Characteristics across the Life Course.”Advances in Life Course Research9:
303–29
12.
DuraJ. R.StukenbergK. W.Kiecolt-GlaserJ. K.1991.
“Spousal Caregivers of Persons with Alzheimer's and Parkinson's Disease Dementia: A Preliminary Comparison.”The Gerontologist30:
332–36
13.
EssexElizabeth LehrSeltzerMarsha M.1999.
“Differences in Coping Effectiveness and Well-Being among Aging Mothers and Fathers of Adults with Mental Retardation.”American Journal of Mental Retardation104:
545–63
14.
GeorgeL.1983.
Caregiver Well-Being: Correlates and Relationships with Participation in Community Self-Help Groups.Durham, NC:
Duke University Medical Center
15.
GreenbergJan S.2002.
“The Role of Fathers in the Lives of Their Sons and Daughters with Mental Illness.”
Pp. 269–93 in
Men as Caregivers: Theory, Research, and Service Implications,
edited by KramerB. J.ThompsonE. H.New York:
Springer Publications
16.
GreenbergJan SSeltzerMarsha MailickGreenleyJames R1993.
“Aging Parents of Adults with Disabilities: The Gratifications and Frustrations of Later-Life Caregiving.”The Gerontologist33:
542–50
17.
GreenbergJan S.SeltzerMarsha M.KraussMarty W.RitaChouJinkukHong2004.
“The Effect of Quality of the Relationship between Mothers and Adult Children with Schizophrenia, Autism, or Down Syndrome on Maternal Well-Being: The Mediating Role of Optimism.”American Journal of Orthopsychiatry74:
14–25
18.
HellerTamarKellyHsiehLouisRowitz1997.
“Maternal and Paternal Caregiving of Persons with Mental Retardation across the Lifespan.”Family Relations46:
407–15
19.
HoyertDonna L.SeltzerMarsha M.1992.
“Factors Related to the Well-Being and Life Activities of Family Caregivers.”Family Relations41:
74–81
20.
KlingKristen C.SeltzerMarsha M.RyffCarol D.1997.
“Distinctive Late-Life Challenges: Implications for Coping and Well-Being.”
12:
288–95
21.
LawtonM. PowellKlebanMorton H.JenniferDean1993.
“Affect and Age: Cross-Sectional Comparisons of Structure and Prevalence.”Psychology and Aging8:
165–75
22.
LazarusR.FolkmanS.1984.
Stress, Appraisal, and Coping.New York:
Free Press
23.
LecavalierL.LeoneS.WiltzJ.2006.
“The Impact of Behaviour Problems on Caregiver Stress in Young People with Autism Spectrum Disorders.”Journal of Intellectual Disability Research50:
172–83
24.
MaganaS. M.GarciaJ. I. RamirezHernandezM.CortezR.2007.
“Psychological Burden among Latino Family Caregivers of Adults with Schizophrenia: The Roles of Burden and Stigma in the Stress-Process Model.”Psychiatric Services58:
378–84
25.
MaganaSandraSeltzerMarsha M.KraussMarthy W.2004.
“Cultural Context of Caregiving: Differences in Depression between Puerto Rican and Non-Latina White Mothers of Adults with Mental Retardation.”Mental Retardation42:
1–11
26.
MaganaSandraSeltzerMarsha M.KraussMarthy W.RubertMark P.JoseSzapocznik2002.
“Well-Being and Family Role Strains among Cuban American and Puerto Rican Mothers of Adults with Mental Retardation.”Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment5:
31–55
27.
MartinPinquartSörensenSilvia2005.
“Ethnic Differences in Stressors, Resources, and Psychological Outcomes of Family Caregiving: A Meta-Analysis.”The Gerontologist45:
90–106
28.
MillerBailaLyndaCafasso1992.
“Gender Differences in Caregiving: Fact or Artifact.”The Gerontologist32:
498–507
29.
MiltiadesHelen B.RachelPruchno2001.
“Mothers of Adults with Developmental Disability: Change over Time.”American Journal on Mental Retardation106:
548–61
30.
MirowskyJohnRossCatherine E.1992.
“Age and Depression.”Journal of Health and Social Behavior33:
187–205
31.
MroczekDaniel K.KolarzChristian M.1998.
“The Effect of Age on Positive and Negative Affect: A Developmental Perspective on Happiness.”Journal of Personality and Social Psychology75:
1333–49
32.
NeundorferM.1991.
“Coping and Health Outcomes in Spouse Caregivers of Persons with Dementia.”Nursing Research40:
260–65
33.
NohS.AvisonW. R.1988.
“Spouses of Discharged Psychiatric Patients: Factors Associated with Their Experience of Burden.”Journal of Marriage and the Family50:
377–89
34.
OrsmondGael I.Ling-YiLinSeltzerMarsha M.2007.
“Mothers of Adolescents and Adults with Autism: Parenting Multiple Children with Disabilities.”Journal of Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities45:
257–270
35.
ParksS. H.PilisukM.1991.
“Caregiving Burden: Gender and the Psychological Costs of Caregiving.”American Journal of Orthopsychiatry61:
501–09
36.
PinquartMartinSörensenSilvia2006.
“Gender Differences in Caregiver Experiences: An Updated Meta-Analysis.”Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences61B:
P33–P45
37.
PruchnoRachelPatrickJulie H.1999.
“Mothers and Fathers of Adults with Chronic Disabilities: Caregiving Appraisals and Well-Being.”Research on Aging21:
682–713
38.
PruchnoRachelPatrickJulie HicksBurantChristopher J.1997.
“African American and White Mothers of Adults with Chronic Disabilities: Caregiving Burden and Satisfaction.”Family Relations46:
335–46
39.
ReinhardS. C.HorwitzA. V.1995.
“Caregiver Burden: Differentiating the Content and Consequences of Family Caregiving.”Journal of Marriage and Family57:
741–50
40.
RossCatherine E.WilligenMarieke Van1996.
“Gender, Parenthood, and Anger.”Journal of Marriage and the Family58:
572–84
41.
RussoJ.VitalianoPeter PBrewerD. D.KatonW.BeckerJ.1995.
“Psychiatric Disorders in Spouse Caregivers of Care Recipients with Alzheimer's Disease and Match Controls: A Diathesis-Stress Model of Psychopathology.”Journal of Abnormal Psychology104:
197–204
42.
RyffCarol D.CoreyLeeKeyesM.1995.
“The Structure of Psychological Well-Being Revisited.”Journal of Personality and Social Psychology69:
719–27
43.
SchulzR.WilliamsonG. M.1991.
“A 2-Year Longitudinal Study of Depression among Alzheimer's Caregivers.”Psychology and Aging6:
569–78
44.
SeltzerMarsha M.GreenbergJan S.FloydFrank J.JinkukHong2004.
“Accommodative Coping and Well-Being of Midlife Parents of Children with Mental Health Problems or Developmental Disabilities.”American Journal of Orthopsychiatry74:
187–95
45.
SeltzerMarsha M.GreenbergJan S.FloydFrank J.YvettePetteeJinkukHong2001.
“Life Course Impacts of Parenting a Child with a Disability.”American Journal of Mental Retardation106:
265–86
46.
SeltzerMarsha M.KraussMarthy W.1994.
“Aging Parents with Coresident Adult Children: The Impact of Lifelong Caregiving.”
Pp. 3–18 in
Life Course Perspectives on Adulthood, and Old Age,
edited by SeltzerM. M.KraussM. W.JanickiM. P.Washington, DC:
American Association on Mental Retardation
47.
SempleS. J.1992.
“Conflict in Alzheimer's Families: Its Dimensions and Consequences.”The Gerontologist32:
648–55
48.
SingerGeorge H. S.2006.
“Meta-Analysis of Comparative Studies of Depression in Mothers of Children with and without Developmental Disabilities.”American Journal on Mental Retardation111:
155–69
49.
SommerKristenWhitmanThomas L.BorkowskiJohn G.CynthiaSchellenbachScottMaxwellDeborahKeogh1993.
“Cognitive Readiness and Adolescent Parenting.”Developmental Psychology29:
389–98
50.
TownsendAloenLindaNoelkerGaryDeimlingDavidBass1989.
“Longitudinal Impact of Interhousehold Caregiving on Adult Children's Mental Health.”Psychology and Aging4:
393–401
