An Annotated Bibliography: Psycholinguistics and Deafness

Allen D. V. Modality of similarity and hearing ability. Psychonometric Science, 1971, 24(2), 69–71: Ss n= 45 in 5 groups by hearing level; reading levels 3.5–6; paired associate learning of lists differing in implicit modality of cue (audio/visual) and in response mode (oral/written); R. hearing impairment interacting with audio cues-lower performance.

Allen D. V. Color word interference in deaf and hearing children. Psychonometric Science, 1971, 24(6), 295–296: Ss D n=7,10’–15’, H n=17, 9’–12’, all reading 3–6 grade. R. D > H on interference task, D ≤ H on word naming.

Andre J. Reversal shift behavior and verbalization in two age groups of hearing and deaf children. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1969, 7, 406–418: Ss n= 96, 7’ & 12’. Pr. test verbal mediation hyp. R. D = H.

Bellugi Fisher A comparison of sign language and spoken language. Cognition, 1972, 1 (2/3), 173: Research suggests the following: (i) The parameters of ASL are space, relation of the hands, movement, and configuration. (It is hopeful that the study of these parameters will eventually result in a phonology and syntax of ASL.) (ii) The rate of speech is greater than signing rate, but fewer signs are required to express a proposition and sentence rate in the two modes are the same. (iii) Whereas oral language is produced sequentially, sign language permits simultaneous production of several units. (iv) ASL lacks much of the redundancy of oral language. ASL can preserve in space what English preserves with pronouns. (v) Verb constructions tend to be denser. (vi) Location is incorporated into the movement associated with the verb. (vii) Modification of the motion associated with the verb can also express number, objects, affect, manner, negative, and adjectival information.

Bellugi U. , & Klima E. The roots of language in the sign talk of the deaf. Psychology-Today, 1972, 6, 60–64: The study of ASI. acquisition in children reveals: (i) ASL evidences all aspects of a natural language. (ii) Children acquiring ASL proceed through the same stages as children learning spoken language. (iii) ASL may provide clues to the theoretical issues of the biological, cognitive, universal bases of language, its structure and semantic interpretation.

Beutler L. E. Hearing loss effects on a procedural task sequence. Journal of Motor Behavior, 1970, 2, 3, 207–215: Ss D n= 40, H n= 40, 7’ & 11’. Pr. high relief mazes of increasing difficulty Ss blindfolded. R. D > H on most difficult task, otherwise no difference.

Blank M. Use of the deaf in language studies: a reply to Furth. Psychology Bulletin, 1965, 63, p. 442.

Blank M. , & Bridges W. H. Conceptual cross modal transfer in deaf and hearing children. Child Development, 1966, 37, 29–38.: I Ss D n= 24 H n= 24 3’–4’. Pr. Concept discovery and transfer task in which the relevant cue was the presence or absence of stimulation (light/vibration). R. D = H. II Ss D n= 13 H n= 19, 5’–6’. Pr. successive discrimination task with visual and tactile conditions. Relevant cues were number concepts ‘one’ & ‘two’. R. visual D = H, tactile D > H.

Boese R. J. Native sign language and the problem of meaning. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Santa Barbara. 1971: An extensive review of both historical and contemporary literature on language acquisition and use among deaf children.

Bolton B. Factor analytic studies of communication skills, intelligence, and other psychological abilities of young deaf persons. Rehabilitation Psychology, 1972, 19, 2, 71–79.: Studies reviewed support conclusion that I, skills are independent of nonverbal intelligence.

Carlson B. R. Assessment of motor ability of selected deaf children in Kansas. Perceptual Motor Skills, 1972, 34, 1, 303–305.: Ss D n= 48, 5’–10’. Pr. Brace's Scale of Motor Ability Tests. R. older Ss > younger Ss; no difference by sex or hearing loss.

Carrier E. The influence of language in the color-weight associations of hearing and deaf children. Science Education Research Report, Cambridge: Harvard Graduate School of Education, 1961.: Ss D + H, 8’–18’. Pr. tested for color-weight associations, e.g. white = light while black — heavy. R. under 10’ H > D, over 10’ H = J). Younger deaf children showed no systematic associations of color to weight. Hyp. This association process is mediated by general linguistic experience, which was limited for the younger deaf children.

Chen K. Pronunciability in verbal learning of the deaf. Journal of Psychology, 1973, 84, 1, 89–95.: Ss. D n= 54. Pr. verbal learning memory task. R. Pronunciability was predictor of learning.

Chovan W. L. Role of vocal labeling in memory for object arrangements by deaf and hearing children. Perceptual Motor Skills, 1972, 34, 1, 59–62.: Ss D n=60, 5’–13'; H n= 30, 1st and 3rd grade. Pr. object arrangement task, with or without vocal labels. R. D = H. Hyp. additional modes of mediation available.

Chovan W. L. Conceptual organization of recall in an object arrangement task with deaf and hearing children. Perceptual Motor Skills, 1972, 34, 3, 742.: Ss d + H. Pr. object sorting task. R. Younger D obtained lowest scores. Older D have mediation mechanisms available.

Cicourel A. V. , and Boese R. J. The Function of Language in the Classroom. New York: Teachers College Press, 1971.

Cicourel A. V. , and Boese R. J. The acquisition of manual sign langauge and generative semantics. Semiotica, 1972, 5, 3, 225–256.: Hyp. (i) sign language is a natural language. (ii) the study of sign language will provide the linguist with the opportunity to explore universal aspects of semantic deep structure.

Cicourel A. V. , and Boese R. J. Sign language acquisition and the teaching of deaf children. American Annals of the Deaf, 1972, 117, 1, 227–33 and 3, 304–411.

Clark B. R. , & Leslie P. J. Visual motor skills and reading ability of deaf children. Perceptual Motor Skills, 1971, 33, 1, 263–368.: Ss D n= 27, 8’–12’. Pr. test battery. R. tests did not differentiate between poor and normal readers. In general H > D on visual-motor tasks.

Clifford M. W. Differential aspects of language skill in deaf and hearing children, with attention to social class differences. Dissertation abstracts international, 1963, 33, 9-A, 4931.: Ss D n= 137, 13'16’, H n= 151, 7th grade. Pr. language tests, sem. and syn. R. H > D on all tests, greatest difference on sem. tests.

Conrad R. Short-term memory processes in the deaf. British Journal of Psychology, 1970, 61, 179–194.: Ss D n= 36, 12’–17’, boys. Pr. short term memory task requiring writing consonant sequences shortly after presentation. R. articulatory errors interfered with performance of subject on read-aloud condition.

Conrad R. Short-term memory in the deaf: A test for speech coding. British Journal of Psychology, 1972, 63, 2, 173–180.: Ss D n= 96 5’–16’, H n= 32, 10’–11’. Pr. consonant sequences presented visually. Consonants grouped by articulator)’ similarity (AS) and visual similarity (VS). R. (VS) facilitated recall in H & D with high oral facility. Most D recalled more from (AS).

Conrad R. Profound deafness as a psycholinguistic problem. In Fant Gunnar (Ed.), International Symposium on Speech Communication Ability and Profound Deafness, Washington, D.C.: Alexander Graham Bell Association, 1972, 147–156. Hyp. Instructional procedures need to fit individual differences in visual, auditory, and tactile sensitivity.

Conrad R. Some correlates of speech coding in the short-term memory of the deaf. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 1973, 16, 375–384.

Cooper R. L. The ability of deaf and hearing children to apply morphological rules. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 1967, 10, 77–85.: Ss D n= 140, 7’–19’, H n= 176, 7’–18’. Pr. picture discrimination and sentence completion. R. H > D. Hyp. Experiential deficiency.

Craig E. M. Role of mental imagery in free recall of deaf, blind and normal subjects. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1973, 97, 2, 249–253.: Ss. D n= 40 adolescents, controls n= 40 undergraduates. B n= 40 adolescents. Pr. recall of high vs. low imagery words. R. recall high > low for all Ss even blind.

De Lee Lantz , and Lenneberg E. H. Vernal communical and color memory in the deaf and hearing. Child Development, 1966, 37, 765–79.: Ss D n= 30. 6’ and n= 38 adult, H n= 45, 6’, and n= 30 adult. Pr. color recognition, memory and color communication. R. H_A > D_A > H₆ > D₆, all pairs significantly different except H_A and D_A. Hyp. (i) language facility important in these tasks. (ii) the deaf use what language they have differently.

Doctor P. V. On teaching the abstract to the deaf. Volta Review, 1950, 52, 547–9.: H > D. Hyp. natural language and full sensory experience are necessary to the development of logical thinking.

Dowling R. M. , & Furth H. Expressive symbolic representations in deaf and hearing subjects. American Annal of the Deaf, 1972, 118, 433.

Ewing A. S. G. , and Stanton D. A. G. A study of children with defective hearing. Teaching Deaf, 1943.: The deaf are conceptually retarded in abstract thinking due to language deficit.

Furness H. J. S. The linguistic potential of deaf children. The Teacher of the Deaf, 1972, 70, 412, 107–122 and 413, 186–201.: A recent addition to the oral manual controversy.

Furth H. G. The influence of language on the development of concept formation in deaf children. Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology, 1961, 63, 386–89.: Ss 180 D & 180 H 7’–12’. Pr. concept acquisition: Sameness, symmetry, & opposition followed by transfer to other stimuli. R. D = H on sameness, D = H on symmetry, & H > D on opposition, p < .01. Language provides the ready perception of polar opposites.

Furth H. G. Conceptual discovery and control on a pictorial part-whole task as a function of age, intelligence, and language. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1963, 54, 191–6.: Ss. D & retarded, 6’–14’. Pr. learn to select part-whole pair. R. IQ only significant factor, H = D internal mediation broader than verbal control (Luria 1961).

Furth H. G. Classification transfer with disjunctive concepts as a function of verbal training and set. Journal of Psychology, 1963, 55, 447–87.: Ss. H n= 131, D n= 99 college students. R. H slightly > than D on easier tasks where linguistic coding also considered to be easiest. H = D on harder more complex tasks where linguistic coding less useful.

Furth H. G. Conceptual performance in deaf adults. Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology, 1964, 69, 676–81.: Ss. H & D. Pr. sorting task involving disjunctive groupings. Intensive pretraining provided. R, D = H 66% successful in both groups.

Furth H. G. Conservation of weight in deaf and hearing children. Child Development, 1964, 35, 143–50.: Ss D n= 22, 8'; H 8’ n= 10, 6’ n= 19. 8 of the D from slow classes. Pr. pretraining provided and the reliability of signing checked. R 8'H = 8'D > 6'H when the D from the slow class subtracted out. Deaf have experiential deficiency.

Furth H. G. Research with the deaf: implications for language and cognition. Psychology Bulletin, 1964, 62, 145–164.

Furth H. G. A comparison of reading test norms of deaf and hearing children. American Annals of the Deaf, 1966, 111, 461–2.

Furth H. G. Thinking Without Language: The Psychological Implications of Deafness. The Free Press, New York, 1966.: Argues the theory that those instances of poor performance by the deaf on cognitive tasks can be explained in terms of experiential deficiency and faulty communication between experimenter and subject. Reports: (cont'd) Experiment 8: Conservation of amount of liquid, 121–124, where the experimental situation is revealed to be a more significant factor than deafness.

Furth H. G. , & Mende R. A. The influence of language and age on Gestalt laws of perception. American Journal of Psychology, 1963, 76, 74–81. Ss D & H 9’ & 16’. Pr. tasks of proximity, closure, good figure, and similarity. R. D = H age was the only factory responsible for significant differences.

Furth H. G. , & Milgram N. A. The influences of language on classification: a theoretical model applied to normal, retarded, and deaf children. Genetic Psychological Monograph, 1965, 72, 317–351.: Ss D & H 8’ & 16’. Pr. picture sorting. R. 16'D = 16'H, 8'D < 8'H.

Furth H. G. , & Pufall P. B. Visual and auditory sequence learning in hearing impaired children. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 1966, 9, 441–449.: Ss D, H and aphasic, 6’ & 10’, n= 16. Pr. studied differentiation of combinatorial sequences. For instance, Ss had to learn different responses to each of four 3 unit sequences ABB, AAB, BAA, & BBA. Simultaneous and sequential tasks presented. R. 6'D < 6'H, 10'D = 10'H on sequence task. D = H on simultaneous.

Furth H. G. , and Youniss J. Color-object paired-associates in deaf and hearing children with and without response competition. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 1964, 28, 224–227. R. the deaf had less, rather than more difficulty compared to the hearing in associating reversed color.

Furth H. G. , and Youniss J. The influence of language and experience on discovery and use of logical symbols. British Journal of Psychology, 1965, 56. I Ss D n= 27 early teens. Pr. repeat of Youniss and Furth (1964). R. 55% success on attainment of concept, 0% success on transfer. II Ss D 16’–20’. Pr. repeated again. R. 65% success on attainment, 7.5% success on transfer. III Ss H n= 26 enlisted men as controls, D n= 20 high school seniors who failed on transfer task in previous study. Pr. as above with extensive pretraining added. R. no difference between the two groups on the symbol use (transfer) task. No difference between the logical operations the two groups were able to perform (neg., conj., disjunct., and combinations). Experiential deficit held to be responsible for occasions of poor performance by the deaf.

Furth H. G. Thinking in deaf adolescents: language and formal operations. Journal of Communicative Disorders, 1969, 2, 195–202.: Ss D n= 7, 15’–19’, poor in oral and written English, above average IQ, Pr. observed on modified nonverbal versions of six Piagetian tasks: combination, probability, volume, space, incline, flexibility. R. unclear, there were no instances of complete success or complete failure, on all tasks. Partial successes. 5 had complete success on at least one task.

Furth H. G. Formal operations and language: a comparison of deaf and hearing adolescents. International Journal of Psychology, 1971, 6, 1, 49–64.: I Ss D n= 40, 14’–20’. R. H > D on logical symbolization. D = H in probabilistic prediction and combinatorial thinking. II Ss D n= 3 profoundly deaf from birth, limited English mastery. R. better than average on tests of formal operatory thinking. III Review of literature.

Furth H. G. Linguistic deficiency and thinking: research with deaf subjects 1964–69. Psychology Bulletin, 1971, 76, 58–72. An extensive review of the literature of deaf subjects’ performance on tasks designed to test rule learning, logical symbol use and discovery, memory, perception, and Piagetian-type operations is conducted in order to discover the potential effects of linguistic deficiency on cognitive performance. It is concluded that thinking is unimpaired though most of the deaf subjects were severely linguistically deficient. Occasional failure is attributable to unfavorable testing situations and experiential deficiency of the deaf. This research tends to confirm Piaget's operative theory.

Furth H. G. Deafness and Learning: A Psychological Approach. Belmont, California: Wadsworth, 1973. This book (which is soon to be followed by another) represents nearly fifteen years of research and study of the learning processes of the deaf and the relevant environmental contributions to that process. The book is likely to be of particular importance for educators. Attention is given to social, educational, and psychological (personality and cognitive development) concerns.

Fry D. B. The development of the phonological system in the normal and the deaf child. The Genesis of Language: A Psycholinguistic Approach (Ed.) Smith F. , and Miller G. A. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press 1966.: Hyp. Deaf child can develop a normal productive phonological system when exposed to as much speech sound as possible as early as possible.

Goldstein K. , and Scheerer M. Abstract and concrete behavior: an experimental study with special tests. Psychological Monograph, 1, 1941.: Hyp. the deaf tend to be more concrete in their thinking.

Goss R. N. Language used by mothers of deaf children and mothers of hearing children. American Annals of the Deaf, 1970, 115, 2, 93–96.: Pr. Bales Interaction Process Analysis. R. The interaction of mothers of hearing children with their children is superior to that of mothers of deaf children.

Gozova A. P. Spatial notions of deaf schoolchildren. Boskis R. M. , & Meshcheryakov A. U. (Eds.) Sensory Defects and Mental Development. Symposium 33, International Congress of Psychology, Moscow, 1966.: Ss D grades 5 to 10. Pr. Recognition. Task-match is a three-dimensional schematic to the appropriate object from an array. Older Ss were acquired to pick an object and draw it. Results compared to normative data for H. Ss R. younger D = H, older H > D. Hyp. poorer performance of older D is attributable to lack of attention and lack of detailed thinking.

Hatwell Yvette Privation Sensorielle et Intelligence. Presses Universitaires Francaises, Paris, France, 1960.: Ss D, H, Blind. Pr. Assortment of Piagetian-type tasks. R. D = H > Blind. Hyp. Language cannot compensate for the sensorimotor deficits suffered by the blind.

Hermelin Beate Locating events in space and time: experiments with autistic, blind and deaf children. Journal of Autism and Childhood Schizophrenia, 1972, 2, 3, 288–298. Ss D n= 10, Autistic n= 10, Blind n = 10, and Normal n= 20, 6’–14’. R. D organized visually presented verbal items in a spatial rather than a temporally ordered sequence.

Hirsch I. Teaching the deaf child to speak. Smith F. , and Miller G. G. (Eds.) The Genesis of Language, 1966.: Comments on the Fry paper in the same volume. Discusses the relationship between language acquisition and the exact nature of hearing loss in the hearing impaired child.

Kendler T. S. , and Kendler H. H. Reversal and non-reversal shifts in kindergarten children. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1959, 58, 56–60. This paper served as the basis for a number of studies seeking to assess verbal mediation in language deficient deaf children. Hyp. Reversal shifts are easier for children over 6’. Nonverbal shifts are easier for younger children and animals.

Kennedy A. E. The miniature linguistic system as a code-breaking device for the deaf. Dissertation Abstracts International, 1972, 33 6-A, 2790.: Ss D n= 110, 6’, 8’, 10’ and 12’. Pr. after dividing the sample into experimental and control groups, the experimental group was taught multiple classifications and distinctive features of lexical items and visual object representations. R. Training aided the experimental group on code-breaking linguistic task.

Keogh B. K. , & Vernon M. , & Smith C. E. Deafness and visuo-motor function. Journal of Special Education, 1970, 4, 1, 41–17.: Ss D male n= 96, female n= 64, 8’–16’. Pr. Bender Gestalt performance. R. D show normal development pattern, but 2–3 years delay.

Klopping H. W. Language understanding of deaf students under three auditory-visual stimulus conditions. American Annals of the Deaf, 1972, 117, 3, 389–396.: Ss D n= 30 13’–30’. Pr. stories were presented under three conditions and a comprehension test was administered. R. mode of presentation significantly effected comprehension with total communication > Rochester method > speech reading + voice.

Koh S. D. , & Vernon M. , & Bailey W. Free-recall learning of word lists by prelingual deaf subjects. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1971, 10, 5, 542–547.: Ss D n= 36, H n= 36, 13’–14’ and 18’–20’. R. H > D. Hyp. acoustic-linguistic mediation unavailable to the prelingual deaf is important in the recall task.

Kretschmer R. R. Transformational linguistic analysis of the written language of hearing impaired and normal hearing students. Dissertation Abstracts International, 1972, 33 1-B, 291–292.: Ss D n= 105, 12’–18’, H comparable sample. Pr. after viewing pictures Ss were required to write compositions which were then analyzed by a system based on that suggested by Menyuk. Phrase structures and transformation employed were analyzed. R. H > D. Deaf evidenced a less complex phrase structure and fewer transformational units. Problems. No assessment of the educational background of the D Ss was made available. The performance of users of English as a second language ought to be compared with that of deaf since English is likely to be a second language with ASL being the native language.

Lenneberg E. Biological approach to language. American Annals of the Deaf, 1970, 115, 67–72.

Lenneberg E. , Rebelsky F. G. , and Nichols I. A. The vocalization of infants born to deaf and hearing parents. Vita Humana (Human Development), 1965, 8, 23–37.: Ss 1″–3″ D + H. Pr. Observe the development of vocalization. R. D = H except D did not tend to vocalize on the occasion of adult vocalization.

MacAndrews H. Rigidity and isolation: a study of the deaf and the blind. Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology, 1948, 43, 470–94.: Ss D n= 24 12’, similar blind group. Pr. sorting task. R. of D only 4 succeeded. Blind > D. Hyp. isolation results in rigidity of mental functioning. Isolation is specifically the result of sensory deprivation and generally the result of experiential deficiency.

Mandes E. , Allen P. R. , & Swisher C. W. Comparative study of tachiscopic perception of binary figures in deaf children and normally hearing children. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 1971, 33, 1, 195–200.: Ss D n= 10 6’ 7’. Pr. visual perception task requiring a non-verbal response. R. D = H.

Moores D. F. , Weiss K. L. , Goodwin M. W. Receptive Abilities of Deaf Children Across Five Modes of Communication. Exceptional Children, 1971, 33, 1, Ss D n=74 6’–7’. Pr. material of varying and specified difficulty is presented. R. the Total communication method found to be superior.

Myklebust H. Psychology of Deafness, 1966, New York: Grunet & Stratton.

O'Connor N. , & Hermelin B. Visual analogies of verbal operations. Language and Speech Journal, 8, pp. 197–207.: Ss 10’–11’. R D = H.

O'Connor N. , & Hermelin B. Inter- and intra-modal transfer in children with modality specific and general handicaps. British Journal of Social & Clinical Psychology, 1971, 10, 4, 346–354.: D = controls.

O'Connor N. , & Hermelin B. Seeing and hearing and space and time. Perception and Psychophysics, 1972, 11, 1-A, 46–48.: D = controls.

Odom P. B. , & Blanton R. Rule learning in deaf and hearing subjects. American Journal of Psychology, 1967, 80, 391–397.: Ss D, 17’, H 11’ (matched with D for reading level) and 17’. Pr. memory and rule learning task. R. 17’ H > D > 11’ H. Concluded that D Ss employed implicit rules.

Oleron P. A study of the intelligence of the deaf. American Annals of the Deaf, 1950, 45, 779–95.

Oleron P. Conceptual thinking of the deaf. American Annals of the Deaf, 1953, 98, 304–10.: R. D teenagers have difficulty shifting from one sorting principle to another and in explaining the sorting principle used.

Oleron P. L'Acquisition des conservations et le language. Enfance, 1961, 201–219.: R. D Ss up to six years behind H controls in the acquisition of the conservation of liquids.

Olson R. A case for the use of sign language to stimulate language development during the critical period for learning in a congenitally deaf child. American Annals of the Deaf, 1972, 117, 3, 397–400.: case report.

Olsson J. E. , and Furth H. G. Visual memory span in the deaf. American Journal of Psychology, 1966.: Ss adolescents and adults, D & H. Pr. Recall of digits and forms. R D = H on forms; H > D on digits.

O'Rourke Terrance J. (Ed.) Psycholinguistics and Total Communication: The State of the Art. published by American Annals of the Deaf, 1972. This book contains a collection of articles by some of the most active researchers in the field. Topics include language acquisition, linguistics of sign, communication, sociolinguistic, and education (total communication and bilingualism). Contributing authors include Alatis, Bellugi, Denton, Lenneberg, Meadow, Moores, Neesam, Nemser, Schlesinger, Stokoe, and Vernon.

Pfuderer Carol (Mrs. Ervin-Tripp) Language Acquisition in the deaf: some suggestions for inclusion in the Field Manual, mimeograph, 1968.

Power D. J. , & Quigley S. P. Deaf children's acquisition of the passive voice. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 1973, 16, 5–11.

Presnell L. M. Hearing-impaired children's comprehension and production of syntax in oral language. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 1973, 16, 12–21.

Pufall P. , & Furth H. G. Double alternation behavior as a function of age and language, Child Development, 1966, 37, 653–662.: Ss D n= 60, H n= 60, 4’–9’. R. D = H except H > D at 5’ on acquisition and at 6’ on transfer.

Robertson A. , & Youniss J. Anticipatory visual imagery in deaf and hearing children. Child Development, 1969, 40, 123–135.: Ss. D n= 16 8’–9’ and 11’–12’. H controls. Pr. examined children's knowledge of horizontality of water level and projection of shadows. Tasks included anticipation, demonstration, retest and generalization. R. D = H.

Rosenstein J. Cognitive abilities of deaf children. Journal of Speech and Hearing, 1960, 3, 108–119.

Rosenstein J. Perception, cognition and language in deaf children. Exceptional Child, 1961, 27, 276–283.

Ross B. M. Probability concepts in deaf and hearing children. Child Development, 1966, 37, 917–928.: Ss D 11’–15’, H 7’–15’. Pr. Prediction task. R. older D = H, younger are behind.

Ross B. M. Sequential visual memory and the limited magic of the number seven. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1969, 80, 339–347.: Ss D & H 7’–15’. R. D = H. Memory for an unpatterned series was only about 4 symbols.

Rozanova J. V. Pictorial memory of deaf children. In Boskis R. M. , & Meshcheryakov A. L. (Eds.), Sensory Defects and Mental Development, Sumposium 33, Moscow, International Congress of Psychology, 1966.: I Ss D & H 9’–10’ and 15’–16’. Pr. memory task involving presentation of partial and whole pictures. Ten minute recall. R. older D = H. II Ss D & H 8’, 10’ and 12’. Pr. memory task. Subjects shown 16 pictures of familiar objects. After 20 minutes they were required to recognize them in a set of 80 pictures. R. H > D, older > younger.

Schiff W. , & Dytell R. S. Deaf and hearing children's performance on a tactual perception battery. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 1972, 35, 3, 683–706.: Ss D n= 179. H n=121 grade and high school. R. D > H on vibrotactile and two point measures, H > D on timed tasks. D = H on all others.

Schlesinger H. S. Language acquisition in four deaf children. In Schlesinger H. S. , & Meadow K. P. Deafness and Mental Health: A Developmental Approach, Washington, D.C., H.E.W., 1971.: Detailed case studies show normal language development in four children learning sign. One child began signing at 10″. This child was found to be advanced in all areas of development. Other children progress through normal developmental sequence after introduction to sign.

Schlesinger I. M. Problems of investigating the grammar of sign language. The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Working Paper No. 2, 1967.

Schlesinger I. M. The Grammar of Sign Language: Some Duplications for the Theory of Language. (Duplicated)

Schmitt, Philip. Deaf Children's Comprehension and Production of Sentence Transformation. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, University of Illinois, 1968.: Ss D & H 8’, 11’, 14’, & 17’. Pr. battery of comprehension and production tasks in English. R. overall 8’ H > 17'D. Some evidence for a difference in sequence of acquisition. Pr. more appropriate controls might be second language learners.

Stokoe W. The Study of Sign Language. Silver Spring, Md.: National Association of the Deaf, 1972.

Stoutenburgh G. H. A psycholinguistic approach to study of language deficits in the language performance of deaf children. Unpublished Dissertation, Syracuse University, 1972.: When asked to place words in a sentence orally, deaf subjects used a similar proportion of obligatory vs. optional sentence structures. Deaf subjects did not tend to show development across five age groups; past and plural at 10’, 3rd person marker at 12’, neg. with can and do at 14’. Deaf tend to continue only until listener shows understanding, then stopping, being satisfied with an incomplete sentence.

Suchman R. G. Color-form preference, discriminative accuracy and learning of deaf and hearing children. Child Development, 1966, 37, 439–452.: Ss D n= 36, H n= 36, mean 10’. R. D prefer color, superior discrimination H. prefer form, superior discrimination.

Vernon McKay Relationship of language to the thinking process. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1967, 16, 325–33.: Review of 31 studies of non-verbal IQ, involving a total of 8,000 Ss tasks involved memory, abstraction, reasoning, concept formation, etc. R. in 13 studies D > H, in 7 studies D = H, in 11 studies H > D. Functional literacy is only achieved by 65% of D. Only 5% develop average skill in verbal language by adulthood.

Vernon M. Language development's relationship to cognition, affectivity and intelligence. Canadian Psychologist, 1972, 13, 4, 360–374.: Theoretical position based on literature on verbal and non-verbal communication: (i) verbal language not necessary for cognition; (ii) mediating process of thought not necessarily a verbal symbol system; (iii) verbal language not primary communicator of preconscious, unconscious, and affective material; (iv) linguistic stimulation and the environmental stimulation resulting from it are not primary variables in determining IQ.

White W. J. Non-verbal coding in deaf children. Unpublished Dissertation, Loyola University, 1972.: Ss D n= 16, H n= 16 mean 6′10″. Pr. discrimination learning. R. H showed consistent, non-significant superiority.

Wiig E. H. , & Neurman J. E. The selection of visual dimensions by deaf and hearing children. American Annals of the Deaf, 1972, 117, 3, 383–385.: D = H.

Withrow J. B. Immediate memory span of deaf and normally hearing children. Exceptional Children, 1968, 35, 33–41.: R. H > D on successively presented material. H = D on simultaneously presented material.

Yashkova N. V. Intellectual reversibility formation in deaf and in normal children. Boskis R. M. , & Mescheryakov A. L. (Eds.) Sensory Defects and Mental Development. Symposium 33, Moscow, International Congress of Psychology, 1966.: Ss D & H 6’–11’. Pr. Perception of figure reversal. R. 9’–11’ D = H.

Youniss J. Concept transfer as a function of shifts, age, and deafness. Child Development, 1964, 35, 695–700. R. L incompetent D children = to L competent, H children on reversal problems.

Youniss J. , and Furth H. G. Reaction to a placebo: the mediational deficiency hypothesis. Psychology Bulletin, 1963, 60, 499–502.: R differences predicted by the mediational deficiency hypothesis between D & H were not found.

Youniss J. , and Furth H. G. Attainment and transfer of logical connectives in children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1964, 55, 357–361. Basis for Furth and Youniss 1965.: I Ss H n= 300, 4’–7’. Pr. discover use of logical connectives (″·″, ″/″, and ″·″) e.g. B·R was correct response to a card with a blue figure and a red figure; B/R was correct for a card with either but not both, a blue figure or a red figure, B·R was correct for a green-yellow combination. R. 45% success, criterion = 10 correct choices, no age differences. II Ss same. Pr. transfer learning to new cards and responses. R. of those who succeeded on first task 64% of the older children succeeded on the transfer, but only 11% of the younger. Older discovered concept, younger learned by rote.

Youniss J. , and Furth H. G. Spatial and temporal factors in learning with deaf children: an experimental investigation of thinking. Vocational Rehabilitation Administration (Report RD-1305-5) Washington, D.C. Catholic University of America, 1966.: Ss D & H, 6’–9’. R. D = H, 6’ D did not benefit from instructions directing attention: age was the only significant factor in performance. Delay between cue and response had no systematic effect. Younger children had difficulty in reversal tasks involving familiar stimuli.

Youniss J. , and Furth H. G. Prediction of causal events as a function of transitivity and perceptual congruency in hearing and deaf children. Child Development, 1966, 37, 73–82.: Ss H kindergarten, 1st and 3rd grade; D comparable in age to 3rd grade H Ss. Pr. transitivity experiment with color as relevant dimension and size as the irrelevant dimension. Incongruity — small ball push large ball. R. D = H in terms of logical grouping but made more errors. Younger children's performance interfered with by inconguity.

Youniss J. , and Furth H. G. The role of language and experience on the use of logical symbols. British Journal of Psychology, 1967, 58, 435–443.: Ss D n= 24, H n— 24, American Indian n= 24 young adolescents. Pr. trained in use of logical symbols for use in a task of identifying the truth or falsity of the pairing of a symbol statement and what it was to represent. R. simple tasks all groups equal. On complex normal middle-class control superior to both the D and American Indian groups.

Youniss J. , and Furth H. G. Logical symbol use in deaf and hearing children and adolescents. Development Psychology, 1971, 5, 3, 511–17.: Ss D n= 88, H n= 88, 9’–20’. R. D < H initially, but D = H with training.

Youniss J , and Robertson A. Projective visual imagery as a function of age and deafness, Child Development, 1970, 41.: Ss D 8′10″ n= 24 D 11′11″ n= 24, H same. Pr. perspective test what does scene look like from another angle. R older D = H, younger D < H.