Predictors of Adolescents’ Well-Being in the Contexts of Online and Face-to-Face Education

Abstract

We examined the predictive role of intrinsic motivation, self-control, social support from classmates, and parental life satisfaction on adolescents’ well-being during online and face-to-face education. We used multi-informant data gathered from both adolescents and their parents. Social support from classmates, intrinsic motivation, and self-control were positively associated with well-being both in online and face-to-face education. The link between parental life satisfaction and adolescent well-being was significant during online education but not during the face-to-face education. The results were discussed within the context of instructional formats focusing on the predictive roles of individual and social factors on adolescents’ well-being.

Keywords

online education well-being self-control parent life satisfaction social support from classmates intrinsic motivation COVID

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Akgül

(2023). Emerging adults during the pandemic: The experiences of generation Z in the context of self-determination theory. Child & Youth Services, 44(2), 194–217. https://doi.org/10.1080/0145935X.2022.2065982

Akgül

Atalan Ergin

(2021). Adolescents’ and parents’ anxiety during COVID-19: Is there a role of cyberchondriasis and emotion regulation through the internet? Current Psychology, 40(10), 4750–4759. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020-01229-7

Allé

M. C.

Berntsen

(2021). Self-isolation, psychotic symptoms and cognitive problems during the COVID-19 worldwide outbreak. Psychiatry Research, 302(6), Article 114015. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2021.114015

Arslan

(2021). School belongingness, well-being, and mental health among adolescents: Exploring the role of loneliness. Australian Journal of Psychology, 73(1), 70–80. https://doi.org/10.1080/00049530.2021.1904499

Atalan Ergin

(2023). An examination of distance education and interpersonal relations of adolescents in the pandemic: “Between the four walls”. Cypriot Journal of Educational Sciences, 18(4), 737–745. https://doi.org/10.18844/cjes.v18i4.8506

Audet

É. C.

Levine

S. L.

Metin

Koestner

Barcan

(2021). Zooming their way through university: Which Big 5 traits facilitated students' adjustment to online courses during the COVID-19 pandemic. Personality and Individual Differences, 180(1), Article 110969. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2021.110969

Augustijn

(2022). The intergenerational transmission of life satisfaction between parents and children and the mediating role of supportive parenting. Journal of Family Issues, 43(4), 855–874. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X21995868

Bailey

T. H.

Phillips

L. J.

(2016). The influence of motivation and adaptation on students’ subjective well-being, meaning in life and academic performance. Higher Education Research & Development, 35(2), 201–216. https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2015.1087474

Bakhov

Opolska

Bogus

Anishchenko

Biryukova

(2021). Emergency distance education in the conditions of COVID-19 pandemic: Experience of Ukrainian Universities. Education Sciences, 11(7), 364. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci11070364

10.

Bernasco

E. L.

Nelemans

S. A.

van der Graaff

Branje

(2021). Friend support and internalizing symptoms in early adolescence during COVID‐19. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 31(3), 692–702. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12662

11.

Bryce

C. I.

Alexander

B. L.

Fraser

A. M.

Fabes

R. A.

(2020). Dimensions of hope in adolescence: Relations to academic functioning and well‐being. Psychology in the Schools, 57(2), 171–190. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.22311

12.

Chakraborty

Mittal

Gupta

M. S.

Yadav

Arora

(2021). Opinion of students on online education during the COVID‐19 pandemic. Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies, 3(3), 357–365. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbe2.240

13.

Collins

W. A.

Laursen

(2004). Changing relationships, changing youth: Interpersonal contexts of adolescent development. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 24(1), 55–62. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431603260882

14.

Dağlı

Baysal

(2016). Adaptation of the satisfaction with life scale into Turkish: The study of validity and reliability. Elektronik Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 15(59), 1250–1262. https://doi.org/10.17755/esosder.263229

15.

Deci

E. L.

Ryan

R. M.

(2008). Hedonia, eudaimonia, and well-being: An introduction. Journal of Happiness Studies, 9(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-006-9018-1

16.

DeGraff

A. N.

O’Neal

C. W.

Mancini

J. A.

(2016). The significance of military contexts and culture for understanding family well-being: Parent life satisfaction and adolescent outcomes. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 25(10), 3022–3033. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-016-0471-0

17.

Diener

Emmons

R. A.

Larsen

R. J.

Griffin

(1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49(1), 71–75. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa4901_13

18.

Donker

M. H.

Mastrotheodoros

Branje

(2021). Development of parent-adolescent relationships during the COVID-19 pandemic: The role of stress and coping. Developmental Psychology, 57(10), 1611–1622. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0001212

19.

Duckworth

A. L.

Kim

Tsukayama

(2013). Life stress impairs self-control in early adolescence. Frontiers in Psychology, 3, 608. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00608

20.

Eberle

Hobrecht

(2021). The lonely struggle with autonomy: A case study of first-year university students’ experiences during emergency online teaching. Computers in Human Behavior, 121, Article 106804. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2021.106804Getrightsandcontent

21.

Ellis

W. E.

Dumas

T. M.

Forbes

L. M.

(2020). Physically isolated but socially connected: Psychological adjustment and stress among adolescents during the initial COVID-19 crisis. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue Canadienne des Sciences du Comportement, 52(3), 177–187. https://doi.org/10.1037/cbs0000215

22.

Elmer

Mepham

Stadtfeld

(2020). Students under lockdown: Comparisons of students’ social networks and mental health before and during the COVID-19 crisis in Switzerland. PLoS One, 15(7), Article e0236337. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0236337

23.

Eryilmaz

(2009). Developing an adolescent subjective well-being scale. The Journal of Turkish Educational Science, 7(4), 975–989. https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/tebd/issue/26109/275088

24.

Geprägs

Bürgin

Fegert

J. M.

Brähler

Clemens

(2022). The impact of mental health and sociodemographic characteristics on quality of life and life satisfaction during the second year of the COVID-19 pandemic—Results of a population-based survey in Germany. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(14), 8734. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148734

25.

Gilbert

Bureau

J. S.

Diallo

Morin

A. J.

Guay

(2023). Undergraduate students' motivational profiles before and during the COVID‐19 pandemic: The role of educational climate and trait self‐control. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 93(4), 1188–1206. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12626

26.

Gnambs

Hanfstingl

(2016). The decline of academic motivation during adolescence: An accelerated longitudinal cohort analysis on the effect of psychological need satisfaction. Educational Psychology, 36(9), 1691–1705. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2015.1113236

27.

Hafstad

G. S.

Sætren

S. S.

Wentzel-Larsen

Augusti

E. M.

(2021). Adolescents’ symptoms of anxiety and depression before and during the Covid-19 outbreak–A prospective population-based study of teenagers in Norway. The Lancet Regional Health-Europe, 5, Article 100093. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lanepe.2021.100093

28.

Hamilton

K. R.

Sinha

Potenza

M. N.

(2014). Self-reported impulsivity, but not behavioral approach or inhibition, mediates the relationship between stress and self-control. Addictive Behaviors, 39(11), 1557–1564. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2014.01.003

29.

Headey

Muffels

Wagner

G. G.

(2014). Parents transmit happiness along with associated values and behaviors to their children: A lifelong happiness dividend? Social Indicators Research, 116(3), 909–933. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-013-0326-7

30.

Holzer

Korlat

Haider

Mayerhofer

Pelikan

Schober

Spiel

Toumazi

Salmela-Aro

Käser

Schultze-Krumbholz

Wachs

Dabas

Verma

Iliev

Andonovska-Trajkovska

Plichta

Pyżalski

Walter

Lüftenegger

(2021). Adolescent well-being and learning in times of COVID-19—A multi-country study of basic psychological need satisfaction, learning behavior, and the mediating roles of positive emotion and intrinsic motivation. PLoS One, 16(5), Article e0251352. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0251352

31.

Kara

(2008). Adaptation of the “Echelle de Motivation en Education” Scale to Turkish. Ege Journal of Education, 9(2), 57–78. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/egeefd/issue/4911/67251

32.

Karimi

Sotoodeh

(2020). The mediating role of intrinsic motivation in the relationship between basic psychological needs satisfaction and academic engagement in agriculture students. Teaching in Higher Education, 25(8), 959–975. https://doi.org/10.1080/13562517.2019.1623775

33.

King

R. B.

Gaerlan

M. J. M.

(2014). High self-control predicts more positive emotions, better engagement, and higher achievement in school. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 29(1), 81–100. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10212-013-0188-z

34.

Kokkoris

M. D.

Stavrova

(2021). Staying on track in turbulent times: Trait self-control and goal pursuit during self-quarantine. Personality and Individual Differences, 170(1), Article 110454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110454

35.

Lakhan

Agrawal

Sharma

(2020). Prevalence of depression, anxiety, and stress during COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Neurosciences in Rural Practice, 11(04), 519–525. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0040-1716442

36.

D. J.

N. Y.

Chang

Y. P.

Yen

C. F.

Chen

Y. L.

(2021). Mediating effects of risk perception on association between social support and coping with COVID-19: An online survey. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(4), 1550. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18041550

37.

J. B.

Yang

Dou

Cheung

R. Y.

(2020). Self-control moderates the association between perceived severity of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and mental health problems among the Chinese public. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(13), 4820. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17134820

38.

Lindner

Kotta

Marschalko

E. E.

Szabo

Kalcza-Janosi

Retelsdorf

(2022). Increased risk perception, distress intolerance and health anxiety in stricter lockdowns: Self-control as a key protective factor in early response to the COVID-19 pandemic. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(9), 5098. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19095098

39.

Liu

Huang

Zhang

Feng

X. L.

Guo

(2021). Relationship between risk perception, social support, and mental health among general Chinese population during the COVID-19 pandemic. Risk Management and Healthcare Policy, 14, 1843–1853. https://doi.org/10.2147/RMHP.S302521

40.

Liu

Wang

(2021). Perceived stress of the COVID-19 pandemic and adolescents' depression symptoms: The moderating role of character strengths. Personality and Individual Differences, 182(2), Article 111062. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2021.111062

41.

Lopez

R. B.

Courtney

A. L.

Wagner

D. D.

(2019). Recruitment of cognitive control regions during effortful self-control is associated with altered brain activity in control and reward systems in dieters during subsequent exposure to food commercials. PeerJ, 7(4), Article e6550. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.6550

42.

Masten

A. S.

(2001). Ordinary magic: Resilience processes in development. American Psychologist, 56(3), 227–238. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.227

43.

Montenovo

Jiang

Lozano-Rojas

Schmutte

Simon

Weinberg

B. A.

Wing

(2022). Determinants of disparities in early COVID-19 job losses. Demography, 59(3), 827–855. https://doi.org/10.1215/00703370-9961471

44.

Murdhiono

W. R.

Vidayanti

Retnaningsih

L. N.

Setiawan

D. I.

Wiyani

Syafitri

E. N.

Widayati

R. W.

(2022). Gender, self-control and self-development affect academic stress during online learning among undergraduate students program. Malaysian Journal of Medicine & Health Sciences, 18(3), 81–85. https://medic.upm.edu.my/upload/dokumen/2022022317242316_0959.pdf

45.

Nagy

Róbert

Geszler

(2022). Like parent, like child? The intergenerational transmission of subjective well-being in Hungary. Journal of Family Studies, 29(3), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/13229400.2022.2071164

46.

Nebioglu

Konuk

Akbaba

Eroglu

(2012). The investigation of validity and reliability of the Turkish version of the Brief Self-Control Scale. Klinik Psikofarmakoloji Bülteni-Bulletin of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 22(4), 340–351. https://doi.org/10.5455/bcp.20120911042732

47.

Oppedal

Røysamb

(2007). Young Muslim immigrants in Norway: An epidemiological study of their psychosocial adaptation and internalizing problems. Applied Development Science, 11(3), 112–125. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888690701454583

48.

Petersen

I.-H.

Louw

Dumont

(2009). Adjustment to university and academic performance among disadvantaged students in South Africa. Educational Psychology: An International Journal of Experimental Educational Psychology, 29(1), 99–115. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410802521066

49.

Pilcher

J. J.

Bryant

S. A.

(2016). Implications of social support as a self-control resource. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 10, 228. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2016.00228

50.

Powdthavee

Vignoles

(2008). Mental health of parents and life satisfaction of children: A within-family analysis of intergenerational transmission of well-being. Social Indicators Research, 88(3), 397–422. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-007-9223-2

51.

Rodman

A. M.

Rosen

M. L.

Kasparek

S. W.

Mayes

Lengua

Meltzoff

A. N.

McLaughlin

K. A.

(2022). Social experiences and youth psychopathology during the COVID-19 pandemic: A longitudinal study. Development and Psychopathology, 36(1), 366–378. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579422001250

52.

Rueger

S. Y.

Malecki

C. K.

Pyun

Aycock

Coyle

(2016). A meta‐analytic review of the association between perceived social support and depression in childhood and adolescence. Psychological Bulletin, 142(10), 1017–1067. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000058

53.

Rupnik Vec

Preskar

Slivar

Zupanc Grom

Kregar

Holcar Brunauer

Bevc

Mithans

Grmek

Musek Lešnik

(2020). Analiza izobraževanja na daljavo v času epidemije Covid-19 v Sloveniji [The analysis of distance education in Slovenia during Covid-19 epidemic]. Zavod Republike Slovenije za šolstvo. https://www.dlib.si/stream/URN:NBN:SI:DOCX3BSQ9IN/d1f7defb-e0fa-4ad5-a9c5-975068de1020/PDF

54.

Ryan

R. M.

Deci

E. L.

(2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68

55.

Ryan

R. M.

Sheldon

K. M.

Kasser

Deci

E. L.

(1996). All goals are not created equal: An organismic perspective on the nature of goals and their regulation. In Gollwitzer

P. M.

Bargh

J. A.

(Eds.), The psychology of action: Linking cognition and motivation to behavior (pp. 7–26). Guilford.

56.

Santrock

J. W.

(2023). Adolescence (18 ed.). McGraw Hill.

57.

Schnell

Krampe

(2020). Meaning in life and self-control buffer stress in times of COVID-19: Moderating and mediating effects with regard to mental distress. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 983, 582352. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.582352

58.

Schüürmann

Goagoses

(2022). Perceived social support and alcohol consumption during adolescence: A path-analysis with internalizing and externalizing behaviour problems. Emotional & Behavioural Difficulties, 27(4), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632752.2022.2148880

59.

Tabachnick

B. G.

Fidell

L. S.

(2001). Using multivariate statistics (4th ed.). Allyn & Bacon.

60.

Tangney

J. P.

Baumeister

R. F.

Boone

A. L.

(2004). High self‐control predicts good adjustment, less pathology, better grades, and interpersonal success. Journal of Personality, 72(2), 271–324. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0022-3506.2004.00263.x

61.

Usán

Salavera

Teruel

(2019). School motivation, goal orientation and academic performance in secondary education students. Psychology Research and Behavior Management, 12, 877–887. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S215641

62.

Uzun

LeBlanc

Ferrari

J. R.

(2020). Relationship between academic procrastination and self-control: The mediational role of self-esteem. College Student Journal, 54(3), 309–316. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/JosephFerrari/publication/344388192_Relationship_between_academic_pRocRastinaton_and_self-contRol_the_mediational_Role_of_self-esteem/links/5f6f3d40a6fdcc00863cb5da/Relationshipbetween-academic-pRocRastinaton-and-self-contRol-the-mediational-Role-of-self-esteem.pdf?origin=journalDetail&_tp=eyJwYWdlIjoiam91cm5hbERldGFpbCJ9

63.

Vallerand

R. J.

Blais

M. R.

Brière

N. M.

Pelletier

L. G.

(1989). Construction et validation de l'échelle de motivation en éducation (EME) [Construction and validation of the Motivation toward Education Scale]. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue Canadienne des Sciences du Comportement, 21(3), 323–349. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0079855

64.

Van Harmelen

A. L.

Kievit

R. A.

Ioannidis

Neufeld

Jones

P. B.

Bullmore

Dolan

Consortium, NSPN Fonagy

Goodyer

(2017). Adolescent friendships predict later resilient functioning across psychosocial domains in a healthy community cohort. Psychological Medicine, 47(13), 2312–2322. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291717000836

65.

Varga

T. V.

Dissing

A. S.

Elsenburg

L. K.

Bustamante

J. J. H.

Matta

Van Zon

Brouwe

Bültan

Fancourt

Hoeyer

Goldberg

Melchior

Strandberg-Larsen

Zins

Clotwrthy

Rod

N. H.

(2021). Loneliness, worries, anxiety, and precautionary behaviours in response to the COVID-19 pandemic: A longitudinal analysis of 200,000 Western and Northern Europeans. The Lancet regional health. Europe, 2(1), Article 100020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lanepe.2020.100020

66.

Wills

T. A.

Simons

J. S.

Sussman

Knight

(2016). Emotional self-control and dysregulation: A dual-process analysis of pathways to externalizing/internalizing symptomatology and positive well-being in younger adolescents. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 163(Suppl 1), S37–S45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.08.039

67.

World Health Organization (WHO) . (2023). Health and well-being. https://www.who.int/data/gho/data/major-themes/health-and-well-being

68.

Ystgaard

(1997). Life stress, social support and psychological distress in late adolescence. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 32(5), 277–283. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00789040

69.

Yun

M. R.

Lim

E. J.

Choi

(2020). Effects of academic motivation on clinical practice-related post-traumatic growth among nursing students in South Korea: Mediating effect of resilience. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(13), 4901. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17134901

70.

Zhou

Bian

Zhang

Zheng

Lin

Zheng

Liu

Finan

(2022). Maternal anxiety symptoms and Chinese adolescents’ mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic: The protective role of adolescents’ self-compassion. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 13, 837846. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.837846

71.

Zimmerman

M. A.

Stoddard

S. A.

Eisman

A. B.

Caldwell

C. H.

Aiyer

S. M.

Miller

(2013). Adolescent resilience: Promotive factors that inform prevention. Child Development Perspectives, 7(4), 215–220. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12042

72.

Zou

Jin

(2021). Online college English education in Wuhan against the COVID-19 pandemic: Student and teacher readiness, challenges and implications. PloS One, 16(10), Article e0258137. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0258137