Early detection of risks for substance use disorders is essential to lifelong health and well-being for some youth. Very early-onset use is proposed as an indicator of risk for substance use disorders, but risk and protective factors related to early-onset use have not been identified. The current study compared risk and protective factors that distinguish early- and late-onset cannabis users from abstainers using data collected from a large community sample. The study also examined onset-group differences in participants’ reports of substance use disorder symptoms a decade later. Heavy episodic drinking (early-onset: OR = 7.29 CI = [1.60, 33.19]) and engagement with peers involved in deviant behaviors (early-onset: OR = 2.50 CI = [1.50, 4.13]) are risk factors for early-onset cannabis use. Protective factors, including parent monitoring (early-onset: OR = 0.73 CI = [0.58, 0.93]), engagement with peers involved in positive behaviors (early-onset: OR = 0.54 CI = [0.39, 0.76]), school engagement (early-onset: OR = 0.83 CI = [0.72, 0.96]), and academic grades (early-onset: OR = 0.37 CI = [0.21, 0.65]) also predicted early versus later onset-group differences. Early age of onset may be distinctly related to risk and protective factors previously associated with risks for substance use in all adolescents.
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-5®). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Pub.
2.
AmesM. E.LeadbeaterB. J.MerrinG. J.ThompsonK. (2018). Patterns of marijuana use and physical health indicators among Canadian youth. International Journal of Psychology, 55(1), 1–12. DOI: 10.1002/ijop.12549
3.
BagotK. S.MilinR.KaminerY. (2015). Adolescent initiation of cannabis use and early-onset psychosis. Substance Abuse, 36(4), 524–533.
4.
BaileyS. L.HubbardR. L. (1990). Developmental variation in the context of marijuana initiation among adolescents. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 31(1), 58–70.
5.
BarberB. K. (1996). Parental psychological control: Revisiting a neglected construct. Child Development, 67, 3296–3319. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.1996.tb01915.x.
6.
BarberB. K.OlsenJ. E.ShagleS. C. (1994). Associations between parental psychological and behavioral control and youth internalized and externalized behaviors. Child Development, 65(4), 1120–1136. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.1994.tb00807.x
7.
BestD.GrossS. D.ManningV. S.GossopM. D.WittonJ.S .StrangJ. V.… StrangJ. (2005). Cannabis use in adolescents: Yhe impact of risk and protective factors and social functioning. Drug and Alcohol Review, 24(6), 483–488.
8.
BornsteinM. H.HahnC. S.SuwalskyJ. T. D.HaynesO. M. (2003). Socioeconomic status, parenting, and child development: The Hollingshead four-factor index of social status and the socio- economic index of occupations. In BornsteinM. H.BradleyR. H. (Eds.), Socioeconomic status, parenting, and child development (pp. 29–82). Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
9.
BrookJ. S.LeeJ. Y.BrownE. N.FinchS. J.BrookD. W. (2011). Developmental trajectories of marijuana use from adolescence to adulthood: personality and social role outcomes. Psychological Reports, 108(2), 339–357. Doi: 10.2466/10.18.PR0.108.2.339-357
10.
BryantA. L.SchulenbergJ. E.O’MalleyP. M.BachmanJ. G.JohnstonL. D. (2003). How academic achievement, attitudes, and behaviors relate to the course of substance use during adolescence: A 6-year, multiwave national longitudinal study. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 13(3), 361–397. DOI: 10.1111/1532-7795.1303005
11.
CambronC.KostermanR.RhewI. C.CatalanoR. F.GuttmannovaK.HawkinsJ. D. (2017). An examination of alcohol use disorder symptoms and neighborhood disorganization from age 21 to 39. American Journal of Community Psychology, 60(1–2), 267–278. DOI: 10.1002/ajcp.12160
12.
Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality (2016). Key substance use and mental health indicators in the United States: Results from the 2015 National Survey on Drug Use and Health (HHS Publication No. SMA 16-4984, NSDUH Series H-51). Retrieved fromhttp://www.samhsa.gov/data/
ChilcoatH. D.AnthonyJ. C. (1996). Impact of parent monitoring on initiation of drug use through late childhood. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35(1), 91–100. DOI: 10.1097/00004583-199601000-00017
15.
ComptonW. M.GrantB. F.ColliverJ. D.GlantzM. D.StinsonF. S. (2004). Prevalence of marijuana use disorders in the United States: 1991-1992 and 2001-2002. JAMA, 291(17), 2114–2121. DOI: 10.1001/jama.291.17.2114
16.
ConrodP. J.StewartS. H.ComeauM. N.MacleanM. (2006). Efficacy of cognitive-behavioral interventions targeting personality risk factors for youth alcohol misuse. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psycholgy, 35(4), 550–563.
17.
CreanH. F.JohnsonD. B. (2013). Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies (PATHS) and elementary school aged children’s aggression: Results from a cluster randomized trial. American Journal of Community Psychology, 52(1–2), 56–72.
18.
CrickN. R.GrotpeterJ. K. (1996). Children's treatment by peers: Victims of relational and overt aggression. Development and Psychopathology, 8(2), 367–380. DOI: 10.1017/S0954579400007148
19.
CunninghamC. E.BoyleM. H.HongS.PettingillP.BohaychukD. (2009). The Brief Child and Family Phone Interview (BCFPI): 1. Rationale, development, and description of a computerized children’s mental health intake and outcome assessment tool. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50, 416–423. DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.01970.x.
20.
DegenhardtL.CoffeyC.CarlinJ. B.SwiftW.MooreE.PattonG. C. (2010). Outcomes of occasional cannabis use in adolescence: 10-year follow-up study in Victoria, Australia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 196(4), 290–295.
21.
DegenhardtL.CoffeyC.RomaniukH.SwiftW.CarlinJ. B.HallW. D.PattonG. C. (2013). The persistence of the association between adolescent cannabis use and common mental disorders into young adulthood. Addiction, 108(1), 124–133. DOI: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2012.04015.x
22.
deShazoR. D.ParkerS. B.WilliamsD.IngramJ. B.ElsohlyM.RodenmeyerK.McCullouchK. (2019). Marijuana’s effects on brain structure and function: What do we know and what should we do? A brief review and commentary. The American Journal of Medicine, 132(3), 281–285. DOI: 10.1016/j.amjmed.2018.09.006
23.
DishionT. J.PoulinF.Medici SkaggsN. (2000). The ecology of premature autonomy in adolescence: Biological and social influences. In KernsK. A.ContrerasJ. M.Neal-BarnettA. M. (Eds.), Family and peers: Linking two social worlds (pp. 27–45). Westport, CT: Praeger.
24.
DupreD.MillerN.GoldM.RospendaK. (1995). Initiation and progression of alcohol, marijuana, and cocaine use among adolescent abusers. The American Journal on Addictions, 4(1), 43–48.
25.
EhrenreichH.NahapetyanL.OrpinasP.SongX. (2015). Marijuana use from middle to high school: Co-occurring problem behaviors, teacher-rated academic skills and sixth-grade predictors. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 44(10), 1929–1940. DOI: 10.1007/s10964-014-0216-6
26.
ElkinsI. J.McGueM.IaconoW. G. (2007). Prospective effects of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, conduct disorder, and sex on adolescent substance use and abuse. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64(10), 1145–1152. DOI: 10.1001/archpsyc.64.10.1145
27.
EllicksonP. L.MartinoS. C.CollinsR. L. (2004). Cannabis use from adolescence to young adulthood: Multiple developmental trajectories and their associated outcomes. Health Psychology, 23(3), 299–307. DOI: 10.1037/0278-6133.23.3.299
28.
EpsteinM.HillK. G.NevellA. M.GuttmannovaK.BaileyJ. A.AbbottR. D.KostermanR.HawkinsJ. D. (2015). Trajectories of cannabis use from adolescence into adulthood: Environmental and individual correlates. Developmental Psychology, 51(11), 1650–1663. DOI: 10.1037/dev0000054
29.
Evans-PolceR. J.VasilenkoS. A.LanzaS. T. (2015). Changes in gender and racial/ethnic disparities in rates of cigarette use, regular heavy episodic drinking, and marijuana use: Ages 14 to 32. Addictive Behaviors, 41, 218–22222. DOI: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2014.10.029
30.
FairmanB. J.Furr-HoldenC. D.JohnsonR. M. (2019). When marijuana is used before cigarettes or alcohol: Demographic predictors and associations with heavy use, cannabis use disorder, and other drug-related outcomes. Prevention Science, 20(2), 225–233. DOI: 10.1007/s11121-018-0908-3
31.
FalluJ.-S.JanoszM.BrièreF. N.DescheneauxA.VitaroF.TremblayR. E. (2010). Preventing disruptive boys from becoming heavy substance users during adolescence: A longitudinal study of familial and peer-related protective factors. Addictive Behaviors, 35(12), 1074–1082. DOI: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2010.07.008
32.
Furr-HoldenC. D. M.LeeM. H.JohnsonR.MilamA. J.DuncanA.ReboussinB. A.IalongoN. S. (2015). Neighborhood environment and marijuana use in urban young adults. Prevention Science, 16(2), 268–278. DOI: 10.1007/s11121-014-0497-8
33.
GottfredsonD. C.GerstenblithS. A.SouléD. A.WomerS. C.LuS. (2004). Do after school programs reduce delinquency?Prevention Science, 5(4), 253–266. DOI: 10.1023/B:PREV.0000045359.41696.02
34.
GrantB. F.DawsonD. A. (1998). Age of onset of drug use and its association with DSM-IV drug abuse and dependence: Results from the national longitudinal alcohol epidemiologic survey. Journal of Substance Abuse, 10(2), 163–173. DOI: 10.1016/S0899-3289(99)80131X
35.
GuttmannovaK.SkinnerM. L.OesterleS.WhiteH. R.CatalanoR. F.HawkinsJ. D. (2018). The interplay between marijuana-specific risk factors and marijuana use over the course of adolescence. Prevention Science, 20, 235–245. DOI: 10.1007/s11121-018-0882-9
36.
HawesS. W.TruccoE. M.DuperrouzelJ. C.CoxeS.GonzalezR. (2019). Developmental pathways of adolescent cannabis use: Risk factors, outcomes and sex-specific differences. Substance Use & Misuse, 54(2), 271–281.
37.
HayatbakhshM. R.AlatiR.HutchinsonD. M.JamrozikK.NajmanJ. M.MamunA. A.… BorW. (2007). Association of maternal smoking and alcohol consumption with young adults' cannabis use: A prospective study. American Journal of Epidemiology, 166(5), 592–598. DOI: 10.1093/aje/kwm110
38.
HayatbakhshM. R.NajmanJ. M.JamrozikK.MamunA. A.WilliamsG. M.AlatiR. (2006). Changes in maternal marital status are associated with young adults' cannabis use: Evidence from a 21-year follow-up of a birth cohort. International Journal of Epidemiology, 35(3), 673–679. DOI: 10.1093/ije/dyi320
39.
HayatbakhshR.WilliamsG. M.BorW.NajmanJ. M. (2013). Early childhood predictors of age of initiation to use of cannabis: A birth prospective study. Drug and Alcohol Review, 32(3), 232–240. DOI: 10.1111/j.1465-3362.2012.00520.x
HiltonM. E. (1987) Drinking patterns and drinking problems in 1984: Results from a general population survey. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 11, 167–175.
43.
HoffD. A.AndersenA.HolsteinB. E. (2010). Poor school satisfaction and number of cannabis using peers within school classes as individual risk factors for cannabis use among adolescents. School Psychology International, 31(5), 547–556. DOI: 10.1177/0143034310382870
44.
HollingsheadA. B. (1975). Four factor index of social status. Unpublished manuscript, New Haven: Department of Sociology, Yale University.
45.
HolmesE. K.CowanP. A.CowanC. P.HawkinsA. J. (2013). Marriage, fatherhood, and parenting programming. In CabreraN. J.Tamis-LeMondaC. S.CabreraN. J.Tamis-LeMondaC. S. (Eds.), Handbook of father involvement: Multidisciplinary perspectives (pp. 438–454). New York: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.
46.
JessorR. (2018). Reflections on six decades of research on adolescent behavior and development. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 47(3), 473–476. DOI: 10.1007/s10964-018-0811-z
47.
KandelD. B.KesslerR. C.MarguliesR. Z. (1978). Antecedents of adolescent initiation into stages of drug use: A developmental analysis. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 7(1), 13–40. DOI: 10.1007/BF01538684
48.
KokkeviA.GabhainnS. N.SpyropoulouM. (2006). Early initiation of cannabis use: A cross-national European perspective. Journal of Adolescent Health, 39(5), 712–719. DOI: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2006.05.009
49.
KorhonenT.van LeeuwenA. P.ReijneveldS. A.OrmelJ.VerhulstF. C.HuizinkA. C. (2010). Externalizing behavior problems and cigarette smoking as predictors of cannabis use: The TRAILS study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 49(1), 61–69. DOI: 10.1016/j.jaac.2009.09.001
50.
KristjanssonA. L.JamesJ. E.AllegranteJ. P.SigfusdottirI. D.HelgasonA. R. (2010). Adolescent substance use, parental monitoring, and leisure-time activities: 12-year outcomes of primary prevention in Iceland. Preventive Medicine, 51(2), 168–171.
51.
KumpferK. L.OldsD. L.AlexanderJ. F.ZuckerR. A.GaryL. E. (1998). Family etiology of youth problems. Drug abuse prevention through family interventions. NIDA Research Monograph, (177), 42–77.
52.
LeadbeaterB. J.SchellenbachC. J.MatonK. I.DodgenD. W. (2004). Research and policy for building strengths: Processes and contexts of individual, family, and community development. In MatonK. I.SchellenbachC. J.LeadbeaterB. J.SolarzA. L.MatonK. I.SchellenbachC. J.… SolarzA. L. (Eds.), Investing in children, youth, families, and communities: Strengths-based research and policy. (pp. 13–30). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. DOI: 10.1037/10660-002
53.
LeifheitK. M.ParekhJ.MatsonP. A.MoultonL. H.EllenJ. M.JenningsJ. M. (2015). Is the association between neighborhood drug prevalence and marijuana use independent of peer drug and alcohol norms? Results from a household survey of urban youth. Journal of Urban Health, 92(4), 773–783. DOI: 10.1007/s11524-015-9962-3.
54.
Leos-ToroC.RynardV.MurnaghanD.MacDonaldJ.-A.HammondD. (2018). Trends in cannabis use over time among Canadian youth: 2004-2014. Preventive Medicine, 118, 30–37. DOI: 10.1016/j.ypmed.2018.10.002
55.
LevineA.ClemenzaK.RynnM.LiebermanJ. (2017). Evidence for the risks and consequences of adolescent cannabis exposure. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 56(3), 214–225. DOI: 10.1016/j.jaac.2016.12.014
56.
LiuX.KaplanH. B. (1996). Gender‐related differences in circumstances surrounding initiation and escalation of alcohol and other substance use/abuse. Deviant Behavior, 17(1), 71–106. DOI: 10.1080/01639625.1996.9968015
57.
Lopez-QuinteroC.CobosJ. P. d. l.HasinD. S.OkudaM.WangS.GrantB. F.BlancoC. (2011). Probability and predictors of transition from first use to dependence on nicotine, alcohol, cannabis, and cocaine: Results of the national epidemiologic survey on alcohol and related conditions (NESARC). Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 115(1), 120–130. DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2010.11.004
58.
LucianaM. (2013). Adolescent brain development in normality and psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 25(4, Pt 2), 1325–1345. DOI: 10.1017/S095457941300064
59.
MahoneyJ. L.HarrisA. L.EcclesJ. S. (2006). Organized activity participation, positive youth development, and the over-scheduling hypothesis. Society for Research in Child Development, 20(4):1–31.
60.
MasonM. J.SaboR.ZaharakisN. M. (2017). Peer network counseling as brief treatment for urban adolescent heavy cannabis users. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 78(1), 152–157. DOI: 10.15288/jsad.2017.78.152
61.
McCarthyW. J.AnglinM. D. (1990). Narcotics addicts: Effect of family and parental risk factors on timing of emancipation, drug use onset, pre-addiction incarcerations and educational achievement. Journal of Drug Issues, 20(1), 99–123.
62.
MeierM. H.HillM. L.SmallP. J.LutharS. S. (2015). Associations of adolescent cannabis use with academic performance and mental health: A longitudinal study of upper middle class youth. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 156, 207–212. DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.09.010
63.
MelchiorM.BolzeC.FombonneE.SurkanP. J.PryorL.Jauffret-RoustideM. (2017). Early cannabis initiation and educational attainment: Is the association causal? Data from the french TEMPO study. International Journal of Epidemiology, 46(5), 1641–1650. DOI: 10.1093/ije/dyx065
64.
MillerS.SiegelJ. T.CranoW. D. (2017). Parent’s influence on children’s cannabis use. In PreedyV. R. (Ed.), Handbook of cannabis and related pathologies: Biology, pharmacology, diagnosis, and treatment. (pp. 215–222). San Diego, CA: Elsevier Academic Press. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-800756-3.00025-9
65.
MorinJ.-F. G.AfzaliM. H.BourqueJ.StewartS. H.SéguinJ. R.O’Leary-BarrettM.ConrodP. J. (2019). A population-based analysis of the relationship between substance use and adolescent cognitive development. American Journal of Psychiatry, 176(2), 98–106. DOI: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2018.18020202
66.
MurrayD. W.LawrenceJ. R.LaForettD. R. (2018). The incredible years programs for ADHD in young children: A critical review of the evidence. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 26(4), 195–208. DOI: 10.1177/1063426617717740
67.
National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2017). The health effects of cannabis and cannabinoids: the current state of evidence and recommendations for research.
68.
NelsonS. E.van RyzinM. J.DishionT. J. (2015). Alcohol, marijuana, and tobacco use trajectories from age 12 to 24 years: Demographic correlates and young adult substance use problems. Development and Psychopathology, 27(1), 253–277. DOI: 10.1017/S0954579414000650
69.
ParkerM. A.AnthonyJ. C. (2018). Population-level predictions from cannabis risk perceptions to active cannabis use prevalence in the United States, 1991-2014. Addictive Behaviors, 82, 101–104. DOI: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2018.02.030
70.
PatteK. A.QianW.LeatherdaleS. T. (2017). Marijuana and alcohol use as predictors of academic achievement: A longitudinal analysis among youth in the COMPASS Study. Journal of School Health, 87(5), 310–318. DOI: 10.1111/josh.12498
71.
RaposaE. B.RhodesJ.StamsG. J. J. M.CardN.BurtonS.SchwartzS.… HussainS. (2019). The effects of youth mentoring programs: A meta-analysis of outcome studies. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 48(3), 423–443. DOI: 10.1007/s10964-019-00982-8
72.
ReboussinB. A.GreenK. M.MilamA. J.Furr-HoldenD. M.JohnsonR. M.IalongoN. S. (2015). The role of neighborhood in urban black adolescent marijuana use. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 154, 69–75. DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.06.029
73.
RiouxC.Castellanos-RyanN.ParentS.VitaroF.TremblayR. E.SéguinJ. R. (2018). Age of cannabis use onset and adult drug abuse symptoms: a prospective study of common risk factors and indirect effects. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 63(7), 457–464. DOI: 10.1177/0706743718760289
74.
RoteWendy M.SmetanaJudith G. (2015). Beliefs about parents’ right to know: Domain differences and associations with change in concealment. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 26(2), 334-344. DOI:10.1111/jora.12194.
RotermannM.MacdonaldR. (2018). Analysis of trends in the prevalence of cannabis use in Canada, 1985 to 2015. Health Reports, 29(2), 10–20.
77.
SchaeferE. S. (1965). Children's reports of parental behavior: An inventory. Child Development, 36, 413–424.
78.
SchmidtL. A.JacobsL. M.SpetzJ. (2016). Young people's more permissive views about marijuana: Local impact of state laws or national trend?American Journal of Public Health, 106(8), 1498–1503. DOI: 10.2105/AJPH.2016.303153
79.
SchulerM. S.TuckerJ. S.PedersenE. R.D’AmicoE. J. (2019). Relative influence of perceived peer and family substance use on adolescent alcohol, cigarette, and marijuana use across middle and high school. Addictive Behaviors, 88, 99–105.
80.
SchwartzS. E. O.RhodesJ. E. (2016). From treatment to empowerment: New approaches to youth mentoring. American Journal of Community Psychology, 58(1–2), 150–157. DOI: 10.1002/ajcp.12070
81.
SheehanD. V.LecrubierY.SheehanK. H.AmorimP.JanavsJ.WeillerE.… DunbarG. C. (1998). The Mini-International Neuropsychiatric Interview (M.I.N.I.): The development and validation of a structured diagnostic psychiatric interview for DSM-IV and ICD-10. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 59(Suppl 20), 22–33;quiz 34-57.
82.
SilinsE.HorwoodL. J.PattonG. C.FergussonD. M.OlssonC. A.HutchinsonD. M.… MattickR. P. (2014). Young adult sequelae of adolescent cannabis use: An integrative analysis. The Lancet Psychiatry, 1(4), 286–293. DOI: 10.1016/S2215-0366(14)70307-4
83.
SkeerM.McCormickM. C.NormandS. L. T.BukaS. L.GilmanS. E. (2009). A prospective study of familial conflict, psychological stress, and the development of substance use disorders in adolescence. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 104(1), 65–72. DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2009.03.017
84.
SpillaneN. S.SchickM. R.Kirk-ProvencherK. T.HillD. C.WyattJ.JacksonK. M. (2020). Structured and unstructured activities and alcohol and marijuana use in middle school: The role of availability and engagement. Substance Use & Misuse, 55(11), 1765–1773.
TebesJ. K.FeinnR.VanderploegJ. J.ChinmanM. J.ShepardJ.BrabhamT.… ConnellC. (2007). Impact of a positive youth development program in urban after-school settings on the prevention of adolescent substance use. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41(3), 239–247. DOI: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2007.02.016
87.
ThijssenJ.VinkG.MurisP.de RuiterC. (2017). The effectiveness of parent management training-Oregon model in clinically referred children with externalizing behavior problems in the Netherlands. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 48(1), 136–150. DOI: 10.1007/s10578-016-0660-5
88.
ThompsonK.LeadbeaterB.AmesM.MerrinG. J. (2018a). Associations between marijuana use trajectories and educational and occupational success in young adulthood. Prevention Science, 20(2), 1–13. DOI: 10.1007/s11121-018-0904-7
89.
ThompsonK.MerrinG. J.AmesM. E.LeadbeaterB. (2018b). Cannabis trajectories in Canadian youth: Associations with substance use and mental health. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 50(1). DOI: 10.1037/cbs0000090
90.
von SydowK.LiebR.PfisterH.HöflerM.WittchenH.-U. (2002). What predicts incident use of cannabis and progression to abuse and dependence? A 4-year prospective examination of risk factors in a community sample of adolescents and young adults. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 68(1), 49–64. DOI: 10.1016/S0376-8716(02)00102-3
91.
WehlageG.RutterM.SmithG.LeskoN.FernandezR. (1989). Reducing the risk: Schools as communities of support. London: Falmer Press.
92.
WellsE. A.MorrisonD. M.GillmoreM. R.CatalanoR. F.IritaniB.HawkinsJ. D. (1992). Race differences in antisocial behaviors and attitudes and early initiation of substance use. Journal of Drug Education, 22(2), 115–130.
93.
WilsonW.MathewR.TurkingtonT.HawkT.ColemanR. E.ProvenzaleJ. (2000). Brain morphological changes and early marijuana use: A magnetic resonance and positron emission tomography study. Journal of Addictive Diseases, 19(1), 1–22.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
