This secondary analysis compared outcomes in African American adults newly admitted to buprenorphine treatment and who were on parole and probation with outcomes in patients who were not under criminal justice (CJ) supervision. Buprenorphine patients (N = 300) were randomly assigned to receive either intensive outpatient (IOP) treatment or standard outpatient (OP) treatment and were assessed at baseline, and 3 and 6 months. There were no differences between groups in treatment retention. Among probationers/parolees, IOP treatment was associated with lower 3-month treatment retention compared with OP treatment, but among participants not on probation/parole, the relationship was reversed (p = .004). Both conditions showed significant declines in heroin and cocaine use, illegal activity, and in meeting Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed.; DSM-IV) criteria for opioid and cocaine dependence. Probationers/parolees reported a lower frequency of illegal activities at 3 months compared with nonprobationers/nonparolees (p = .007). Buprenorphine treatment should be made more widely available to individuals on parole/probation as they respond as well to treatment as patients not supervised by the CJ system.
AmassL.KamienJ. B.MikulichS. K. (2000). Efficacy of daily and alternate-day dosing regimens with the combination buprenorphine-naloxone tablet. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 58, 143-152.
2.
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
3.
AnglinM. D. (1988). The efficacy of civil commitment in treating narcotic addiction. Journal of Drug Issues, 18, 527-545.
4.
BallJ. C.RossA. (1991). The effectiveness of methadone maintenance treatment: Patients, programs, services, and outcomes. New York, NY: Springer.
5.
BowdenC. L.MadduxJ. F.EsquivelM. (1978). Arrests before and during methadone maintenance. International Journal of the Addictions, 13, 921-931.
6.
BrechtM.AnglinM. D. (1993). Treatment effectiveness for legally coerced versus voluntary methadone maintenance clients. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 19, 89-106.
7.
Bureau of Justice Statistics. (2009). Correctional populations in the US, annual, prisoners in 2008. Washington, DC: Author.
8.
ChandlerR. K.FletcherB. W.VolkowN. D. (2009). Treating drug abuse and addiction in the criminal justice system: Improving public health and safety. Journal of the American Medical Association, 301, 183-190.
9.
ChawarskiM. C.SchottenfeldR. S.O’ConnorP. G.PakesJ. (1999). Plasma concentrations of buprenorphine 24 to 72 hours after dosing. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 55, 157-163.
10.
ClarkR. E.SamnalievM.BaxterJ. D.LeungG. Y. (2011). The evidence doesn’t justify steps by state Medicaid programs to restrict opioid addiction treatment with buprenorphine. Health Affairs, 30, 1425-1433. doi:10.1377/hlthaff.2010.0532
11.
CornishJ. W.MetzgerD.WoodyG. E.WilsonD.McLellanA. T.VandergriftB.O’BrienC. P. (1997). Naltrexone pharmacotherapy for opioid dependent federal probationers. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 14, 529-534.
12.
CovielloD. M.CornishJ. W.LynchK. G.AltermanA. I.O’BrienC. P. (2010). A randomized trial of oral naltrexone for treating opioid-dependent offenders. American Journal on Addictions, 19, 422-432. doi:10.1111/j.1521-0391.2010.00070.x
13.
CropseyK. L.LaneP. S.HaleG. J.JacksonD. O.ClarkC. B.IngersollK. S.StitzerM. L. (2011). Results of a pilot randomized controlled trial of buprenorphine for opioid dependent women in the criminal justice system. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 119, 172-178. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2011.06.021
14.
CushmanP.Jr. (1972). Methadone maintenance treatment of narcotic addiction. Analysis of police records of arrests before and during treatment. New York State Journal of Medicine, 72, 1752-1755.
15.
DegenhardtL.BucelloC.MathersB.BrieglebC.AliH.HickmanM.McLarenJ. (2011). Mortality among regular or dependent users of heroin and other opioids: A systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies. Addiction, 106, 32-51. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2010.03140.x
16.
DesmondD. P.MadduxJ. F. (1977). The effect of probation on behavior of chronic opioid users. Contemporary Drug Problems, 6, 41-58.
17.
DesmondD. P.MadduxJ. F. (1996). Compulsory supervision and methadone maintenance. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 13, 79-83.
18.
DoleV. P.NyswanderM. E. (1965). A medical treatment for diacetylmorphine (heroin) addiction. A clinical trial with methadone hydrochloride. Journal of the American Medical Association, 193, 646-650.
19.
DoleV. P.NyswanderM. E.KreekM. J. (1966). Narcotic blockade: A medical technique for stopping heroin use by addicts. Transactions of the Association of American Physicians, 79, 122-136.
20.
DucharmeL. J.AbrahamA. J. (2008). State policy influence on the early diffusion of buprenorphine in community treatment programs. Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention, and Policy, 3, 17. doi:10.1186/1747-597X-3-17
21.
DuPontR. L.KatonR. N. (1971). Development of a heroin-addiction treatment program. Effect on urban crime. Journal of the American Medical Association, 216, 1320-1324.
22.
DuvallH. J.LockeB. C.BrillL. (1963). Follow-up study of narcotic drug addicts five years after hospitalization. Public Health Reports, 78, 185-193.
23.
FormanR. F.SvikisD.MontoyaI. D.BlaineJ. (2004). Selection of a substance use disorder diagnostic instrument by the National Drug Abuse Treatment Clinical Trials Network. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 27, 1-8.
24.
FriedmannP. D.HoskinsonR.GordonM.SchwartzR.KinlockT.KnightK., . . . Mat Working Group of CJ-DATS. (2012). Medication-assisted treatment in criminal justice agencies affiliated with the criminal justice-drug abuse treatment studies (CJ-DATS): Availability, barriers, and intentions. Substance Abuse, 33, 9-18. doi:10.1080/08897077.2011.611460
25.
GarciaC. A.CorreaG. C.Hernandez ViverA. D.KinlockT. W.GordonM. S.AvilaC. A.SchwartzR. P. (2007). Buprenorphine-naloxone treatment for pre-release opioid-dependent inmate in Puerto Rico. Journal of Addiction Medicine, 1, 126-132. doi:10.1097/ADM.0b013e31814b8880
26.
GastfriendD. R.Mee-LeeD. (2003). The ASAM patient placement criteria: Context, concepts and continuing development. Journal of Addictive Diseases, 22(Suppl. 1), 1-8.
27.
GlazeL. E.PallaS. (2005). Probation and parole in the United States, 2004. Washington, DC: Bureau of Justice Statistics, Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice. Retrieved from http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/content/pub/pdf/ppus04.pdf
28.
GryczynskiJ.KinlockT. W.KellyS. M.O’GradyK. E.GordonM. S.SchwartzR. P. (2012). Opioid agonist maintenance for probationers: Patient-level predictors of treatment retention, drug use, and crime. Substance Abuse, 33, 30-39. doi:10.1080/08897077.2011.616816
29.
GryczynskiJ.SchwartzR. P.SalkeverD. S.MitchellS. G.JaffeJ. H. (2011). Patterns in admission delays to outpatient methadone treatment in the United States. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 41, 431-439. doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2011.06.005
30.
HserY. I.HoffmanV.GrellaC. E.AnglinM. D. (2001). A 33-year follow-up of narcotics addicts. Archives of General Psychiatry, 58, 503-508. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.58.5.503
31.
HubbardR. L.MarsdenmM. E.RachalJ. V.HarwoodH. I.CavanaughE. R.GinzburgH. M. (1989). Drug abuse treatment: A national study of effectiveness. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
32.
Institute of Medicine. (2006). Preventing HIV infection among injecting drug users in high risk countries. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
33.
JosephH. (1973). Probation department treats heroin addicts. Federal Probation, 37, 35-39.
34.
KellyS. M.O’GradyK. E.JaffeJ. H.GandhiD.SchwartzR. P. (2013). Improvements in outcomes in methadone patients on probation/parole regardless of counseling early in treatment. Journal of Addiction Medicine, 7, 133-138.
35.
KinlockT. W.GordonM. S.SchwartzR. P. (2011). Incarcerated populations. In RuizP.StrainE. (Eds.), Lowinson and Ruiz’s substance abuse: A comprehensive textbook (5th ed., pp. 881-891). Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott.
36.
KnudsenH. K.DucharmeL. J.RomanP. M. (2006). Early adoption of buprenorphine in substance abuse treatment centers: Data from the private and public sectors. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 30, 363-373.
37.
KochA. L.ArfkenC. L.SchusterC. R. (2006). Characteristics of U.S. substance abuse treatment facilities adopting buprenorphine in its initial stage of availability. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 83, 274-278. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2005.12.005
38.
KurlandA. A.McCabeL.HanlonT. E. (1975). Contingent naloxone (N-allylnoroxymorphone) treatment of the paroled narcotic addict. International Pharmacopsychiatry, 10, 157-168.
39.
KurlandA. A.WurmserL.KermanF.KokoskiR. (1966). Urine detection tests in the management of the narcotic addict. American Journal of Psychiatry, 122, 737-742.
40.
LangenauerB. J.BowdenC. L. (1971). A follow-up study of narcotic addicts in the NARA program. American Journal of Psychiatry, 128, 41-46.
41.
MaguraS.LeeJ. D.HershbergerJ.JosephH.MarschL.ShropshireC.RosenblumA. (2009). Buprenorphine and methadone maintenance in jail and post-release: A randomized clinical trial. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 99, 222-230.
42.
MattickR. P.BreenC.KimberJ.DavoliM. (2009). Methadone maintenance therapy versus no opioid replacement therapy for opioid dependence. Cochrane Database of Systematic Review, 3, CD002209. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD002209.pub2
43.
MattickR. P.KimberJ.BreenC.DavoliM. (2008). Buprenorphine maintenance versus placebo or methadone maintenance for opioid dependence. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2, CD002207.
44.
McLellanA. T.KushnerH.MetzgerD.PetersR.SmithI.GrissomG.ArgeriouM. (1992). The fifth edition of the Addiction Severity Index. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 9, 199-213.
45.
MetzgerD. S.WoodyG. E.McLellanA. T.O’BrienC. P.DruleyP.NavalineH.AbrutynE. (1993). Human immunodeficiency virus seroconversion among intravenous drug users in- and out-of-treatment: An 18-month prospective follow-up. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome, 6, 1049-1056.
46.
MitchellS. G.GryczynskiJ.SchwartzR. P.O’GradyK. E.OlsenY. K.JaffeJ. H. (2013). A randomized trial of intensive outpatient (IOP) vs. standard outpatient (OP) buprenorphine treatment for African Americans. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 128, 222-229. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2012.08.027
47.
NewmanR. G.BashkowS.CatesM. (1973). Arrest histories before and after admission to a methadone maintenance treatment program. Contemporary Drug Problems, 2, 417-430.
48.
NIH Consensus Conference. (1998). Effective medical treatment of opiate addiction. Journal of the American Medical Association, 280, 1936-1943.
49.
NurcoD. N.HanlonT. E.KinlockT. W. (1991). Recent research on the relationship between illicit drug use and crime. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 9, 221-242.
50.
NurcoD. N.HanlonT. E.KinlockT. W.DuszynskiK. R. (1988). Differential criminal patterns of narcotic addicts over an addiction career. Criminology, 26, 407-423.
51.
PetersonJ. A.SchwartzR. P.MitchellS. G.ReisingerH. S.KellyS. M.O’GradyK. E.AgarM. H. (2010). Why don’t out-of-treatment individuals enter methadone treatment programs?International Journal of Drug Policy, 21, 36-42. doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2008.07.004
52.
RothbardA.AltermanA.RutherfordM.LiuF.ZelinskiS.McKayJ. (1999). Revisiting the effectiveness of methadone treatment on crime reductions in the 1990s. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 16, 329-335.
53.
SchwartzR. P.GryczynskiJ.O’GradyK. E.SharfsteinJ. M.WarrenG.OlsenY.JaffeJ. H. (2013). Opioid agonist treatments and heroin overdose deaths in Baltimore, Maryland from 1995-2009: A tale of expansion and reduction. American Journal of Public Health, 103, 917-922.
54.
SchwartzR. P.HighfieldD. A.JaffeJ. H.BradyJ. V.ButlerC. B.RouseC. O.BattjesR. J. (2006). A randomized controlled trial of interim methadone maintenance. Archives of General Psychiatry, 63, 102-109. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.63.1.102
55.
SchwartzR. P.JaffeJ. H.O’GradyK. E.KinlockT. W.GordonM. S.KellyS. M.AhmedA. (2009). Interim methadone treatment: Impact on arrests. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 103, 148-154. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2009.03.007
56.
SchwartzR. P.KellyS. M.O’GradyK. E.GandhiD.JaffeJ. H. (2012). Randomized trial of standard methadone treatment compared to initiating methadone without counseling: 12-month findings. Addiction, 107, 943-952. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2011.03700.x
57.
SimpsonD. D.SellsS. B. (1982). Effectiveness of treatment for drug abuse: An overview of the DARP research program. Advances in Alcohol & Substance Abuse, 2, 7-29.
58.
SpringerS. A.ChenS.AlticeF. L. (2010). Improved HIV and substance abuse treatment outcomes for released HIV-infected prisoners: The impact of buprenorphine treatment. Journal of Urban Health, 87, 592-602. doi:10.1007/s11524-010-9438-4
59.
StantonA. (2006). The SAMHSA evaluation of the impact of the DATA Waiver Program (Summary Report). Rockville, MD: WESTAT.
60.
TaxmanF. S.PerdoniM. L.HarrisonL. D. (2007). Drug treatment services for adult offenders: The state of the state. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 32, 239-254. doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2006.12.019
61.
TurnerS.LongshoreD.WenzelS.DeschenesE.GreenwoodP.FainT.McBrideD. (2002). A decade of drug treatment court research. Substance Use & Misuse, 37, 1489-1527.
62.
VaillantG. E. (1966). Twelve-year follow-up of New York narcotic addicts II. The natural history of a chronic disease. New England Journal of Medicine, 275, 1282-1288.
63.
WalshS. L.PrestonK. L.StitzerM. L.ConeE. J.BigelowG. E. (1994). Clinical pharmacology of buprenorphine: Ceiling effects at high doses. Clinical Pharmacological Therapy, 55, 569-580.
64.
World Health Organization. (2005). Substitution maintenance therapy in the management of opioid dependence and HIV/AIDS prevention (Position paper). Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, and Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/substance_abuse/publications/en/PositionPaper_English.pdf
