The sequelae of sustained, in vivo delivery of two important neurotransmitter substances, glutamate and thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), upon craniofacial growth and development have previously not been investigated. Our purpose was to document and compare the relative effects of glutamate and TRH microspheres stereotactically placed in proximity to trigeminal motoneurons within the trigeminal motor nucleus. The following null hypotheses were tested: (1) TRH microspheres in proximity to trigeminal motoneurons have no significant effect upon the craniofacial skeleton, and (2) there are no significant differences between the relative effects of chronic, long-term delivery of glutamate and TRH upon the neuromusculoskeletal system of growing rats. Forty male Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into 4 experimental groups (glutamate microspheres, TRH microspheres, blank microspheres, sham surgeries) and underwent stereotactic neurosurgery at 35 days; 5 rats of each group were killed at 14 and 21 days for data collection. Histology revealed that implants were clustered in the pontine reticular formation, close to the ventrolateral tegmental nucleus. Both glutamate and TRH rats had implant-side deviation of their facial skeleton and snout regions; 4 x 2 ANOVA and post hoc t-tests revealed significant (P ≤ 0.05, 0.01) differences between groups and sides for motoneuron count, muscle weight, and osteometric data. TRH rats also demonstrated larger implant-side TMJ discs and mandibular fossae in comparison with the other groups. The stated null hypotheses were therefore rejected.
Askanas V., Engel WK, Eagleson K., Micaglio G. (1989). Influence of TRH and TRH analogues RGH-2202 and DN-1417 on Cultured ventral spinal cord neurons, Ann NY Acad Sci553:325-336.
2.
Behrents RG, Johnston LE Jr (1984), The influence of the trigeminal nerve on facial growth and development. Am J Orthod85:199-206.
3.
Byrd KE ( 1984). Masticatory movements and EMG activity following electrolytic lesions of the trigeminal motor nucleus in growing guinea pigs. Am J Orthod86:146-161.
4.
Byrd KE ( 1988a). Craniofacial sequelae of lesions to facial and trigeminal motor nuclei in growing rats. Am J Phys Anthopol76:87-103.
5.
Byrd KE ( 1988b). Loci and characteristics of EMG silent periods during masticatory mandibular movements in rats. J Dent Res67:1284-1288.
6.
Byrd KE ( 1997). Characterization of brux-like movements in the laboratory rat by optoelectronic mandibular tracking and EMG techniques. Arch Oral Biol42:33-43.
7.
Byrd KE, Chai Y. ( 1988). Three-dimensional movement analysis of lateral pterygoid electromyographic activity during mastication in the rat. Arch Oral Biol33:635-640.
8.
Byrd KE, Hamilton-Byrd EL (1994). Polymeric delivery of neurotransmitters and neuromodulators . In: Polymeric site-specific pharmacotherapy. Domb AJ, editor. New York: Wiley & Sons, pp. 142-155.
9.
Byrd KE, Stein ST (1990). Effects of lesions to the trigeminal motor nucleus on temporomandibular disc morphology. J Oral Rehabil17:529-540.
10.
Byrd KE, Stein ST, Sokoloff AJ, Shankar K. (1990). Craniofacial alterations following electrolytic lesions of the trigeminal motor nucleus in actively growing rats. Am J Anat189:93-110.
11.
Byrd KE, Domb AJ, Sokoloff AJ, Hamilton-Byrd EL (1992). Stimulation of trigeminal motoneurons by in vivo implantation of glutamate-impregnated microspheres. Polym Adv Technol3:337-344.
12.
Chandler SH (1989). Evidence for excitatory amino acid transmission between mesencephalic nucleus of V afferents and jaw-closer motoneurons in the guinea pig. Brain Res477:252-264.
13.
Chandler SH, Nielsen SA, Goldberg LJ (1985). The effects of a glycine antagonist (strychnine) on cortically induced rhythmical jaw movements in the anesthetized guinea pig. Brain Res325:181-186.
14.
Clarke KA, Parker AJ (1986). Further studies on the effects of a thyrotropin releasing hormone analogue on locomotor activity in the rat. Neuropeptides8:99-109.
15.
DeLahunta A. (1971). Small animal neurological
16.
examination. Vet Clin North Am1:191-206.
17.
Domb AJ, Maniar M. (1993). Absorable biopolymers derived from dimer fatty acids. J Potym Sci31:1275-1285.
18.
Easton JW, Carlson DS (1990). Adaptation of the lateral pterygoid and superficial masseter muscles to mandibular protrusion in the rat. Am J Orthod Dentofac Orthop97:149-158.
19.
Fujita S., Hoshino K. (1989). Histochemical and immunohistochemical studies on the articular disk of the temporomandibular joint in rats. Acta Anat134:26-30.
20.
Fuxe K. ( 1965). Evidence for the existence of monoamine neurons in the central nervous system. IV. The distribution of monoamine terminals in the central nervous system. Acta Physiol Scand64(Suppl):38-120.
21.
Gardner DE, Luschei ES, Joondeph DR (1980). Alterations in the facial skeleton of the guinea pig following a lesion of the trigeminal motor nucleus. Am j Orthod78:66-80.
22.
Ghadirian AM, Annable L., Belanger MC, Chouinard B. (1996). A cross-sectional study of Parkinsonism and tardive dyskinesia in lithium-treated affective disordered patients. J Clin Psychiatry57:22-28.
23.
Grzanna R., Chee WK, Akeyson EW (1987). Noradrenergic projections to brainstem nuclei: evidence for differential projections from noradrenergic subgroups. J Comp Neurol263:76-91.
24.
Howard MA III, Gross A., Grady MS, Langer RS, Mathiowitz E., Winn HR, et al. (1989). Intracerebral drug delivery in rats with lesion-induced memory deficits. J Neurosurg71:105-112.
25.
Inoue T., Chandler SH, Goldberg LJ (1994). Neuro-pharmacological mechanisms underlying rhythmical discharge in trigeminal interneurons during fictive mastication. J Neurophysiol71:2061-2073.
26.
Jackson Imd (1982). Thyrotropin releasing hormone. N Engl J Med306:145-155.
27.
Johnson JV, Fone KC, Havler ME, Tullock IF, Bennett GW, Marsden CA (1989). A comparison of the motor behaviours produced by the intrathecal administration of thyrotropin-releasing hormone and thyrotropin-releasing hormone analogues in the conscious rat. Neuroscience29:463-470.
28.
Katakura N., Chandler SH (1990). An iontophoretic analysis of the pharmacologic mechanisms responsible for trigeminal motoneuronal discharge during masticatory-like activity in the guinea pig. J Neurophysiol63:356-369.
29.
Kubek MJ, Lorincz MA, Wilber JF (1977). The identification of thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) in hypothalamic and extrahypothalamic loci of the human nervous system . Brain Res126:196-200.
30.
Kubek MJ, Rea MA, Hodes ZI, Aprison MH (1983). Quantitation and characterization of thyrotropin-releasing hormone in vagal nuclei and other regions of the medulla oblongata of the rat. J Neurochem40:1307-1313.
31.
Kubek MJ, Knoblach SM, Sharif NA, Burt DR, Buterbaugh GG, Fuson KS (1993). Thyrotropin-releasing hormone gene expression and receptors are differentially modified in limbic foci by seizures. Ann Neurol33:70-76.
32.
LaBossiere E., Glickstein M. (1976). Histological processing for the neural sciences . Springfield, IL: C.C. Thomas.
33.
Lekkas C., Honee GL, van den Hooff A. (1988). Effects of
34.
experimental defects of the articular disc of the temporomandibular joint in rats. J Oral Rehabil15:141-148.
35.
Leong KW, Brott BC, Langer R. (1985). Bioerodible polyanhydrides as drug-carrier matrices. I: Characterization, degradation, and release characteristics. J Biomed Mater Res19:941-955.
36.
Levitt P., Moore RY (1979). Origin and organization of brainstem catecholamine innervation in the rat. J Comp Neurol186:505-528.
37.
Levkovitch Y., Kronenberg J., Kayser N., Zvyagelski M., Gaoni B., Gadoth N. (1995). Clozapine for tardive dyskinesia in adolescents . Brain Dev17:213-215.
38.
Lomo T., Westgaard RH, Engebretsen L. (1980). Different stimulation patterns affect contractile properties of denervated rat soleus muscles. In: Muscle plasticity . Pette D, editor. Berlin: de Gruyter, pp. 297-310.
39.
Lyons WE, Grzanna R. (1988). Noradrenergic neurons with divergent projections to the motor trigeminal nucleus and the spinal cord: a double retrograde neuronal labeling study. Neurosci26:681-693.
40.
Manaker S., Winokur A., Rostene WH, Rainbow TC (1985). Autoradiographic localization of thyrotropin-releasing hormone receptors in the rat central nervous system. J Neurosci5:167-174.
41.
Maniar M., Domb AJ, Haffer A., Shah J. ( 1994). Controlled release of a local anesthetic from fatty acid dimer based polyanhydrides. J Control Rel30:233-239.
42.
McGeer PL, Eccles JC, McGeer EG (1987). Molecular neurobiology of the mammalian brain . 2nd rev. ed. New York: Plenum.
43.
Merchenthaler I., Csemus V., Csontos C., Petrusz P., Mess B. ( 1988). New data on the immunocytochemical localization of thyrotropin-releasing hormone in the rat central nervous system. Am J Anat181:359-376.
44.
Morilak DA, Jacobs BL (1985). Noradrenergic modulation of sensorimotor processes in intact rats: the masseteric reflex as a model system. J Neurosci5:1300-1306.
45.
O'Brien Rad, Vrbova G. (1980). Nerve-muscle interactions during early development . In: Muscle plasticity. Pette D, editor. Berlin: de Gruyter , pp. 271-282.
46.
Olney JW (1978). Neurotoxicity of excitatory amino acids. In: Kainic acid as a tool in neurobiology. McGeer EG, Olney JW, McGeer PL, editors. New York: Raven Press, pp. 95-122.
47.
Oudet C., Petrovic A., Garcia P. (1987). Kieferorthopadische Behandlung und Muskeleigentumlichkeiten . Fortschr Kieferorthop48:276-297.
48.
Oudet C., Petrovic A., Garcia P. (1988). An experimental orthopedic treatment of the rat mandible using a functional appliance alters the fibre- and myosin-types in masticatory muscles. Reprod Nutr Dev28:795-803.
49.
Palkovits M., Mezey E., Eskay RL, Brownstein MJ (1986). Innervation of the nucleus of the solitary tract and dorsal vagal nucleus by thyrotropin releasing hormone-containing raphe neurons. Brain Res373:246-251.
50.
Paxinos G., Watson C. (1986). The rat brain in stereotaxic coordinates. 2nd rev. ed. New York: Academic Press.
51.
Phillips C., Shapiro PA, Luschei ES (1982). Morphologic alterations in Macaca mulatta following destruction of the motor nucleus of the trigeminal nerve. Am J Orthod81:292-298.
52.
Rekling JC (1990). Excitatory effects of thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) in hypoglossal motoneurons. Brain Res510:175-179.
53.
Salmons S., Sreter FA (1976). Significance of impulse activity in the transformation of skeletal muscle type. Nature263:30-34.
54.
Semba K., Egger MD (1986). The facial "motor" nerve of the rat: control of vibrissal movement and examination of motor and sensory components. J Comp Neurol247:144-158.
55.
Sharif NA (1989). Quantitative autoradiography of TRH receptors in discrete brain regions of different mammalian species. Ann NY Acad Sci553:147-175.
56.
Shaw RM, Molyneux GS (1993). The effects of induced dental malocclusion on the fibrocartilage disc of the adult rabbit temporomandibular joint. Arch Oral Biol38:415-422.
57.
Stewart JM, Young JD (1984). Solid peptide synthesis. Rockford, IL: Price Chemical Company.
58.
Sweet RA, Mulsant BH, Gupta B., Rifai AH, Pasternak RE, McEachran A., et al. (1995). Duration of neuroleptic treatment and prevalence of tardive dyskinesia in late life. Arch Gen Psychiatry52:478-486.
59.
Tabada Y., Domb A., Langer R. (1994). Injectable polyanhydride granules provide controlled release of water-soluble drugs with reduced initial burst. J Pharm Sci83:5-11.
60.
Travers JB (1985). Organization and projections of the orofacial motor nuclei. In: The rat nervous system. Vol. 2. Hindbrain and spinal cord. Paxinos G, editor. New York: Academic Press, pp. 111-128.
61.
Travers JB (1995). Oromotor nuclei. In: The rat nervous system. 2nd rev. ed. Paxinos G, editor. New York: Academic Press, pp. 239-255.
62.
Travers JB, Norgren R. (1983). Afferent projections to the oral motor nuclei in the rat. J Comp Neurol220:280-298.
63.
Vornov JJ, Sutin J. (1983). Brainstem projections to the normal and noradrenergically hyperinnervated trigeminal motor nucleus. J Comp Neurol214:198-208.
64.
Vornov JJ, Sutin J. (1986). Noradrenergic hyperinnervation of the motor trigeminal nucleus: alterations in membrane properties and responses to synaptic input . J Neurosci6:30-37.
65.
Watson CR, Sakai S., Armstrong W. (1982). Organization of the facial nucleus in the rat . Brain Behav Evolut20:19-28.
66.
Woodside DG, Metaxas A., Altuna G. (1987). The influence of functional appliance therapy on glenoid fossa remodeling. Am J Orthod Dentofac Orthop92:181-198.
67.
Yarbrough GG (1979). On the neuropharmacology of thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH). Prog Neurobiol12:291-312.
