With data from a 20-nation study (N = 2,533), the authors investigated how individual patterns of endorsement of individualist and collectivist attitudes are distributed within and across national contexts. A cluster analysis performed on individual scores of self-reliance (individualist dimension), group-oriented interdependence (collectivist dimension), and competitiveness (individualist or collectivist dimension) yielded a typology of four constrained combinations of these dimensions. Despite the prevalence of a typology group within a given country, variability was observed in all countries. Self-reliant non-competitors and interdependent non-competitors were prevalent among participants from Western nations, whereas self-reliant competitors and interdependent competitors were more common in non-Western countries. These findings emphasize the benefits for cross-cultural research of a typological approach based on combinations of individualist and collectivist dimensions.
Allik, J., & Realo, A. (2004). Individualism-collectivism and social capital. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 35, 29-49.
2.
Asendorpf, J. B. (2002). Editorial: The puzzle of personality types. European Journal of Personality, 16, S1-S5.
3.
Bakan, D. (1966). The duality of human existence. Chicago: Rand McNally.
4.
Basabe, N., & Ros, M. (in press). Cultural dimensions and social behavior correlates: Individualism-collectivism and power distance. International Review of Social Psychology.
5.
Bellah, R. N., Madsen, R., Sullivan, W. M., Swidler, A., & Tipton, S. M. (1985). Habits of the heart. New York: Perennial Library.
6.
Bem, S. L. (1974). The measurement of psychological androgyny. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 42, 155-162.
7.
Blasius, J. (1994). Correspondence analysis in social science research. In M. Greenacre & J. Blasius (Eds.), Correspondence analysis in the social sciences. Recent developments and applications (pp. 23-52). London: Academic Press.
8.
Bontempo, R. (1993). Translation fidelity of psychological scales: An item response theory analysis of an individualism-collectivism scale. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 24, 149-166.
9.
Brislin, R. W. (1986). The wording and translation of research instruments. In W. J. Lonner & J. W. Berry (Eds.), Field methods in cross-cultural research (pp. 137-164). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
10.
Cha, J-H. (1994). Aspects of individualism and collectivism in Korea. In U. Kim, H. C. Triandis, C. Kagitçibasi, S-C. Choi, & G. Yoon (Eds.), Individualism and collectivism. Theory, method, and application (pp. 157-174). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
11.
Cibois, P. (1984). L’analyse des données en sociologie [Data analysis in sociology]. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
12.
Cibois, P. (2002). Site d’information sur Trideux [Trideux information site]. Retrieved August 25, 2003, from http://persoweb.francenet.fr/cibois/trideux.htm
Conway, L. G., Ryder, A. G., Tweed, R. G., & Sokol, B. W. (2001). Intranational cultural variation. Exploring further implications of collectivism within the United States. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 32, 681-697.
15.
Coon, H. M., & Kemmelmeier, M. (2001). Cultural orientations in the United States. (Re)examining differences among ethnic groups. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 32, 348-364.
16.
Costa, P. T., Jr., Herbst, J. H., McCrae, R. R., Samuels, J., & Ozer, D. J. (2002). The replicability and utility of three personality types. European Journal of Personality, 16, S73-S87.
17.
Cross, S. E., Bacon, P., & Morris, M. (2000). The relational-interdependent self-construaland relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 791-808.
18.
Doise, W., Clémence, A., & Lorenzi-Cioldi, F. (1993). The quantitative analysis of social representations. London: Harvester Wheat sheaf.
19.
Doise, W., Spini, D., & Clémence, A. (1998). Human rights studied as social representations in a cross-national context. European Journal of Social Psychology, 29, 1-30.
20.
Fernández, I., Paez, D., & González, J. L. (in press). Independent and interdependent self-construal and socio cultural factors in 29 countries. International Review of Social Psychology.
21.
Fiske, A. P. (1991). Structures of social life: The four elementary forms of human relations. New York: Free Press.
22.
Fiske, A. P. (2002). Using individualism and collectivism to compare cultures—A critique of the validity and measurement of the constructs: Comment on Oyserman et al. (2002). Psychological Bulletin, 128, 78-88.
23.
Fiske, A. P., Kitayama, S., Markus, H. R., & Nisbett, R. E. (1998). The cultural matrix of social psychology. In D. T. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (4th ed., Vol. 2, pp. 915-981). New York: McGraw-Hill.
24.
Freeman, M. A. (1997). Demographic correlates of individualism and collectivism: A study of social values in Sri Lanka. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 28, 321-341.
25.
Fyans, L. J. J., Salili, F., Maehr, M. L., & Desai, K. A. (1983). A cross-cultural exploration into the meaning of achievement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44, 1000-1013.
26.
Gaines, S. O. J., Marelich, W. D., Bledsoe, K. L., & Steers, W. N. (1997). Links between race/ethnicity and cultural values as mediated by racial/ethnic identity and moderated by gender. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 1460-1476.
27.
Georgas, J. (1989). Changing family values in Greece: From collectivist to individualist. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 20, 80-91.
28.
Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
29.
Green, E. G. T. (2003). Comparabilité de groupes culturels: Biais de réponse et de structure dans une étude interculturelle sur l’individualisme et le collectivisme [Comparability of cultural groups: Response and construct bias in a cross-cultural study of individualism and collectivism]. New Review of Social Psychology, 2, 201-215.
30.
Green, E. G. T. (in press). Individualism in cross-cultural psychology: Separating self-reliance and success orientation. International Review of Social Psychology.
31.
Greenacre, M. J. (1993). Correspondence analysis in practice. London: Academic Press.
32.
Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture’s consequences. International differences in work-related values. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
33.
Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s consequences. Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
34.
Hofstee, W. K. B. (2002). Types and variables: Towards a congenial procedure for handling personality data. European Journal of Personality, 16, S89-S96.
35.
Hui, C. H. (1988). Measurement of individualism-collectivism. Journal of Research in Personality, 22, 17-36.
36.
Hui, C. H., & Triandis, H. C. (1986). Individualism-collectivism: A study of cross-cultural researchers. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 17, 225-248.
37.
Inglehart, R. (1977). The silent revolution: Changing values and political styles among Western publics. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
38.
Inglehart, R. (1990). Culture shift in advanced industrial society. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
39.
Kagitçibasi, C. (1994). A critical appraisal of individualism and collectivism. Toward a new formulation. In U. Kim, H. C. Triandis, C. Kagitçibasi, S-C. Choi, & G. Yoon (Eds.), Individualism and collectivism. Theory, method, and applications (pp. 52-65). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
40.
Kagitçibasi, C. (1997). Individualism and collectivism. In J. W. Berry, M. H. Segall, & C. Kagitçibasi (Eds.), Hand-book of cross-cultural psychology: Social behavior and applications (Vol.3, pp.1-49). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
41.
Kashima, Y., Yamaguchi, S., Kim, U., Choi, S-C., Gelfand, M. J., & Yuki, M. (1995). Culture, gender, and self: A perspective from individualism-collectivism research. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 925-937.
42.
Kim, U. (1994). Individualism and collectivism: Conceptual clarification and elaboration. In U. Kim, H. C. Triandis, C. Kagitçibasi, S-C. Choi, & G. Yoon (Eds.), Individualism and collectivism. Theory, method, and applications (pp. 19-40). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
43.
Kim, U., Triandis, H. C., Kagitçibasi, C., Choi, S-C., & Yoon, G. (1994). Introduction. In U. Kim, H. C. Triandis, C. Kagitçibasi, S-C. Choi, & G. Yoon (Eds.), Individualism and collectivism. Theory, method, and applications (pp. 1-16). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
44.
Lebart, L. (1994). Complementary use of correspondence analysis and cluster analysis. In M. Greenacre & J. Blasius (Eds.), Correspondence analysis in the social sciences. Recent developments and applications (pp. 162-178). London: Academic Press.
45.
Leung, K., & Bond, M. (1989). On the empirical identification of dimensions for cross-cultural comparisons. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 20, 133-151.
46.
Lorenzi-Cioldi, F., & Dafflon, A-C. (1998). Norme individuelle et norme collective, I: Representations du genre dans une société individualiste [Individual norms and collective norms, I: Representations of gender in an individualist society]. Swiss Journal of Psychology, 57, 124-137.
47.
Maisonneuve, C. (2003). Studying the relationship between individuals and their culture: A brief overview of the issue. International Review of Social Psychology, 16, 5-19.
48.
Markus, H., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98, 224-253.
49.
Marshall, R. (1997). Variances in levels of individualism across two cultures and three social classes. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 28, 430-495.
50.
Matsumoto, D., Kudoh, T., & Takeuchi, S. (1996). Changing patterns of individualism and collectivism in the United States and Japan. Culture and Psychology, 2, 77-107.
51.
Matsumoto, D., Weissman, M. D., Preston, K., Brown, B. R., & Kupperbusch, C. (1997). Context-specific measurement of individualism-collectivism on the individual level: The individualism-collectivism interpersonal assessment inventory. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 28, 743-767.
52.
Mishra, R. C. (1994). Individualist and collectivist orientation across generations. In U. Kim, H. C. Triandis, C. Kagitçibasi, S-C. Choi, & G. Yoon (Eds.), Individualism and collectivism. Theory, method, and applications (pp. 225-238). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
53.
Morales, J. F., Gaviria, E., Molero, F., Arias, A., & Paez, D. (2000). Individualism: One or many?Psicothema, 12, 34-44.
54.
Niles, S. (1998). Achievement goals and means: A cultural comparison. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 29, 656-667.
55.
Ongel, U., & Smith, P. B. (1994). Who are we and where are we going? JCCP approaches its 100th issue. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 25, 25-53.
56.
Oyserman, D., Coon, H. M., & Kemmelmeier, M. (2002). Rethinking individualism and collectivism: Evaluation of theoretical assumptions and meta-analyses. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 3-72.
57.
Phalet, K., & Claeys, W. (1993). A comparative study of Turkish and Belgian youth. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 24, 319-343.
58.
Pirttilä-Backman, A-M., Kassea, B. R., & Ikonen, T. (2004). Cameroonian forms of collectivism and individualism. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 35, 481-498.
59.
Realo, A., Koido, K., Ceulemans, E., & Allik, J. (2002). Three components of individualism. European Journal of Personality, 16, 163-184.
60.
Schnabel, K., Asendorpf, J. B., & Ostendorf, F. (2002). Replicable types and subtypes of personality: German NEO PI-R versus NEO-FFI. European Journal of Personality, 16, S7-S24.
61.
Schwartz, S. H. (1990). Individualism-collectivism: Critique and proposed refinements. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 21, 139-157.
62.
Schwartz, S. H. (1992). Universals in the content and structure of values: Theoretical advances and empirical tests in 20 countries. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 25, pp. 1-65). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
63.
Schwartz, S. H. (1994). Beyond individualism/collectivism: New cultural dimensions of values. In U. Kim, H. C. Triandis, C. Kagitçibasi, S-C. Choi, & G. Yoon (Eds.), Individualism and collectivism. Theory, method, and applications (pp. 85-119). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
64.
Sherif, M. (1967). Group conflict and cooperation: Their social psychology. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
65.
Singelis, T. M. (1994). The measurement of independent and interdependent self-construals. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20, 580-591.
66.
Singelis, T. M., Triandis, H. C., Bhawuk, D. P. S., & Gelfand, M. J. (1995). Horizontal and vertical dimensions of individualism and collectivism: A theoretical and measurement refinement. Cross-Cultural Research, 29, 240-275.
67.
Sinha, D., & Tripathi, R. C. (1994). Individualism in a collectivist culture: A case of coexistence of opposites. In U. Kim, H. C. Triandis, C. Kagitçibasi, S-C. Choi, & G. Yoon (Eds.), Individualism and collectivism. Theory, method, and applications (pp. 123-136). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
68.
Smith, P. B., & Bond, M. (1998). Social psychology across cultures. London: Prentice Hall.
69.
Smith, P. B., & Schwartz, S. H. (1997). Values. In J. W. Berry, M. H. Segall, & C. Kagitçibasi (Eds.), Handbook of cross-cultural psychology: Social behavior and applications (Vol. 3, pp. 77-118). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
70.
Triandis, H. C. (1995). Individualism & collectivism. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
71.
Triandis, H. C. (1996). The psychological measurement of cultural syndromes. American Psychologist, 51, 407-415.
72.
Triandis, H. C., Bontempo, R., Betancourt, H., Bond, M., Leung, K., Brenes, A., et al. (1986). The measurement of the etic aspects of individualism and collectivism across cultures. Australian Journal of Psychology, 38, 257-267.
73.
Triandis, H. C., Bontempo, R., Villareal, M. J., Asai, M., & Lucca, N. (1988). Individualism and collectivism: Cross-cultural perspectives on self-ingroup relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 323-338.
74.
Turnbull, C. M. (1972). The mountain people. New York: Simon and Schuster.
75.
Vandello, J. A., & Cohen, D. (1999). Patterns of individualism and collectivism across the United States. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 279-292.
76.
Van de Vijver, F. J., & Leung, K. (1997). Methods and data analysis for cross-cultural research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
77.
Van de Vijver, F. J., & Leung, K. (2000). Methodological issues in psychological research on culture. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 31, 33-51.
78.
Van de Vliert, E. (1998). Gender role gaps, competitiveness and temperature. In G. Hofstede (Ed.), Masculinity and femininity. The taboo dimension of national cultures (pp. 117-129). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
79.
Waterman, A. S. (1981). Individualism and interdependence. American Psychologist, 36, 762-773.
80.
Williams, J. E., & Best, D. L. (1982). Measuring sex stereotypes: A thirty-nation study. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
81.
Wink, P. (1997). Beyond ethnic differences: Contextualizing the influence of ethnicity and individualism and collectivism. Journal of Social Issues, 53, 329-350.
82.
World Bank. (2001). World development indicators. Retrieved October 17, 2001, from www.worldbank.org/data/databytopic/countryclass.html
83.
Yu, A-B., & Yang, K-S. (1994). The nature of achievement motivation in collectivist societies. In U. Kim, H. C. Triandis, C. Kagitçibasi, S-C. Choi, & G. Yoon (Eds.), Individualism and collectivism. Theory, method, and applications (pp. 239-250). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
