This article presents some predictions for the future of cross-cultural social psychology. It begins with the argument that all social psychology is cultural and that there is ever-growing acceptance of this fact. The results of this acceptance will be an increase in the pervasiveness of culture as a variable, a growth in multicultural research teams, and a recentering of research in social psychology. The introduction of non-Western constructs and theories, such as the interdependent self and relationship harmony, will increase in the future and bring with them a focus on research on interpersonal interactions and relationships. Finally, a model is presented that it is hoped will lead to studies that include both group-level and individual-level variables. It is concluded that an increase in complexity of studies and the incorporation of interdisciplinary research will lead to greater understanding of the mutual effects of culture and social behavior.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Banaji, M. R. , & Prentice, D. A. (1994). The self in social contexts. Annual Review of Psychology, 45, 297-332.
2.
Berry, J. W. (1997). Immigration, acculturation and adaptation. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 46, 5-68.
3.
Berry, J. W. , & Sam, D. (1997). Acculturation and adaptation. In J. W. Berry, M. H. Segall, & C. Kagitcibasi (Eds.), Handbook of cross-cultural psychology: Vol. 3. Social behaviors and applications (2nd ed., pp. 291-326). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
4.
Best, D. L. , & Williams, J. E. (1997). Sex, gender, and culture. In J. W. Berry, M. H. Segall, & C. Kagitcibasi (Eds.), Handbook of cross-cultural psychology: Vol. 3. Social behaviors and applications (2nd ed., pp. 163-212). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
5.
Bond, M. H. (1994). Continuing encounters with Hong Kong. In W. J. Lonner & R. Malpass (Eds.), Psychology and culture (pp. 41-46). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
6.
Bond, M. H. (Ed.). (1997). Working at the interface of cultures: Eighteen lives in social science. New York: Routledge.
7.
Bond, M. H. (1998). Social psychology across cultures: Two ways forward. In J. G. Adair, D. Belanger, & K. L. Dion (Eds.), Advances in psychological science: Social, personal, and cultural aspects (Vol. 1, pp. 137-150). Sussex, UK: Psychology Press.
8.
Bond, M. H. , & Tedeschi, J. T. (in press). Polishing the jade: A modest proposal for improving social psychology across cultures. In D. Matsumoto (Ed.), Handbook of culture and psychology. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
9.
Bond, M. H. , Wan, K. C., Leung, K., & Giacalone, R. (1985). How are responses to verbal insult related to cultural collectivism and power distance?Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 16, 111-127.
10.
Bond, R. , & Smith, P. B. (1996). Culture and conformity: A meta-analysis of studies using Asch’s line judgment task. Psychological Bulletin, 119, 111-137.
11.
Brislin, R. W. , & Horvath, A. -M. (1997). Cross-cultural training and multicultural education. In J. W. Berry, M. H. Segall, & C. Kagitcibasi (Eds.), Handbook of cross-cultural psychology: Vol. 3. Social behaviors and applications (2nd ed., pp. 327-369). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
12.
Chen, L. (1995). Interaction involvement and patterns of topical talk: A comparison of intercultural and intracultural dyads. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 19, 463-482.
13.
Choi, S. H. (1992). Communicative socialization processes: Korea and Canada. In S. Iwawaki, Y. Kashima, & K. Leung (Eds.), Innovations in cross-cultural psychology (pp. 103-121). Lisse, the Netherlands: Swets & Zeitlinger.
14.
Clark, L. A. (1987). Mutual relevance of mainstream and cross-cultural psychology. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55, 461-470.
15.
Easton, D. (1991). The division, integration, and transfer of knowledge. In D. Easton & C. S. Schelling (Eds.), Divided knowledge (pp. 7-36). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
16.
Featherman, D. L. (1993). What does society need from higher education?Items, 47(2), 38-43.
17.
Fiske, A. P. , Kitayama, S., Markus, H. R., & Nisbett, R. E. (1998). The cultural matrix of social psychology. In D. T. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, & L. Gardner (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (Vol. 2, 4th ed., pp. 915-981). New York: McGraw-Hill.
18.
Frable, D. E. S. (1997). Gender, racial, ethnic, and class identities. Annual Review of Psychology, 48, 139-162.
19.
Gabrenya, W. K. (1999). Psychological anthropology and the “levels of analysis” problem: We married the wrong cousin. In J. C. Lasry, J. Adair, & K. Dion (Eds.), Latest contributions to cross-cultural psychology (pp. 333-351). Lisse, the Netherlands: Swets & Zeitlinger.
20.
Geertz, C. (1975). On the nature of anthropological understanding. American Scientist, 63, 47-53.
21.
Gergen, K. J. (1973). Social psychology as history. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 26, 309-320.
22.
Gudykunst, W. B. , & Bond, M. H. (1997). Intergroup relations across cultures. In J. W. Berry, M. H. Segall, & C. Kagitcibasi (Eds.), Handbook of cross-cultural psychology: Vol. 3. Social behaviors and applications (2nd ed., pp. 119-161). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
23.
Gudykunst, W. B. , & Ting-Toomey, S. (1988). Culture and interpersonal communication.New-bury Park, CA: Sage.
24.
Heine, S. J. , Lehman, D. R., Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (in press). Is there a universal need for positive self-regard?Psychological Review.
25.
Herskovits, M. J. (1955). Cultural anthropology. New York: Knopf.
26.
Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture’s consequences. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
27.
James, W. (1890/1981). The principles of psychology. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
28.
Kagitcibasi, C. (1996a). The autonomous-relational self: A new synthesis. European Psychologist, 1, 180-186.
29.
Kagitcibasi, C. (1996b). Family and human development across cultures: A view from the other side. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
30.
Kagitcibasi, C. (1997). Individualism and collectivism. In J. W. Berry, M. H. Segall, & C. Kagitcibasi (Eds.), Handbook of cross-cultural psychology: Vol. 3. Social behaviors and applications (2nd ed., pp. 1-49). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
31.
Kashima, E. S. , Hardie, E. A. (in press). The development and validation of the relational, individual, and collective self-aspects (RIC) scale. Asian Journal of Social Psychology.
32.
Kashima, Y. (1998, August). Culture and social cognition: A mainstreaming of cross-cultural psychology or culturizing the mainstream? Paper presented at the 14th Congress of the International Association for Cross-Cultural Psychology, Bellingham, WA.
33.
Kashima, Y. , Kim, U., Choi, S. C., Gelfand, M. J., & Yuki, M. (1995). Culture, gender, and the self: A perspective from individualism-collectivism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 925-937.
34.
Keller, H. , & Greenfield, P. M. (2000). History and future of development in cross-cultural psychology. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 31, 52-62.
35.
Kim, M. S. (in press). Non-Western perspectives on human communication: Implications for theory. In A. Asante, V. Millhouse, & P. O. Nwoso (Eds.), The handbook of intercultural communication. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
36.
Kim, U. , Park, Y. -S., & Park, D. (2000). The challenge of cross-cultural psychology: The role of the indigenous psychologies. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 31, 63-75.
37.
Kim, Y. Y. (in press). “Unum” and “pluribus”: Ideological underpinnings of interethnic communication in the United States. International Journal of Intercultural Relations.
38.
Kitayama, S. , Markus, H. R., Matsumoto, H., & Norasakkunkit, V. (1997). Individual and collective processes in the construction of self: Self-enhancement in the United States and self-criticism in Japan. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 1245-1267.
39.
Kroeber, A. L. , & Kluckhohn, C. (1952). Culture: A critical review of concepts and definitions (Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Vol. 47, No. 1). Cambridge, MA: Peabody Museum.
40.
Kwan, V. S. Y. , Bond, M. H., & Singelis, T. M. (1997). Pancultural explanations for life satisfaction: Adding relationship harmony to self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 1038-1051.
41.
Markus, H. R. , & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98, 224-253.
42.
Markus, H. R. , & Kitayama, S. (1994). A collective fear of the collective: Implications for selves and theories of selves. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 5, 568-579.
43.
Marsella, A. , DeVos, G., & Hsu, F. L. K. (Eds.). (1985). Culture and the self. London: Tavistock.
44.
Matsumoto, D. (in press). Culture and self: An empirical assessment of Markus and Kitayama’s theory of independent and interdependent self-construals. Asian Journal of Social Psychology.
45.
Miller, J. G. (1997a). The interdependence of interpretive ethnographic and quantitative psychological methodologies in cultural psychology. Ethos, 25, 164-176.
46.
Miller, J. G. (1997b). Theoretical issues in cultural psychology. In J. W. Berry, Y. H. Poortinga, & J. Pandy (Eds.), Handbook of cross-cultural psychology: Vol. 1. Theory and method (pp. 85-128). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
47.
Misra, G. , & Agarwal, R. (1985). The meaning of achievement: Implications for a cross-cultural theory of achievement motivation. In I. Reyes Lagunes & Y. H. Poortinga (Eds.), From a different perspective: Studies of behavior across cultures (pp. 250-276). Lisse, the Netherlands: Swets & Zeitlinger.
48.
Moghaddam, F. , & Studer, C. (1997). Cross-cultural psychology: The frustrated gadfly’s promises, potentialities, and failures. In D. Fox & I. Prilleltensky (Eds.), Critical psychology: An introduction (pp. 185-201). London: Sage.
49.
Pedersen, P. (1991). Counseling international students. The Counseling Psychologist, 19, 10-58.
50.
Pedersen, P. (Ed.). (1999). Multiculturalism as a fourth force. Philadelphia: Brunner/Mazel.
51.
Phalet, K. , & Claeys, W. (1993). A comparative study of Turkish and Belgian youth. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 24, 319-343.
52.
Phinney, J. S. (1996). Understanding ethnic diversity: The role of ethnic identity. American Behavioral Scientist, 40, 143-152.
53.
Poortinga, Y. H. , van de Vijver, F. J. R., Joe, R. C., & van de Koppel, J. M. H. (1987). Peeling the onion called culture: A synopsis. In C. Kagitcibasi (Ed.), Growth and progress in cross-cultural psychology (pp. 22-34). Lisse, the Netherlands: Swets & Zeitlinger.
54.
Sampson, E. E. (1977). Psychology and the American ideal. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 767-782.
55.
Sampson, E. E. (1988). The debate on individualism: Indigenous psychologies of the individual and their role in personal and societal functioning. American Psychologist, 43, 15-22.
56.
Saraswathi, T. S. (1998). Many deities, one God: Towards convergence in cultural and cross-cultural psychology. Culture & Psychology, 4, 147-160.
57.
Segall, M. H. , Ember, C. R., & Ember, M. (1997). Aggression, crime, and warfare. In J. W. Berry, M. H. Segall, & C. Kagitcibasi (Eds.), Handbook of cross-cultural psychology: Vol. 3. Social behaviors and applications (2nd ed., pp. 213-254). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
58.
Segall, M. H. , Lonner, W. J., & Berry, J. W. (1998). Cross-cultural psychology as a scholarly discipline: On the flowering of culture in behavioral research. American Psychologist, 53, 1101-1110.
59.
Shweder, R. A. (1991). Thinking through cultures: Expeditions in cultural psychology. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
60.
Shweder, R. A. , & Bourne, E. J. (1984). Does the concept of the person vary cross-culturally? In R. A. Shweder & R. A. LeVine (Eds.), Culture theory (pp. 158-199). Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
61.
Singelis, T. M. (1994). Bridging the gap between culture and communication. In A. -M. Bouvy, F. J. R. van de Vijver, P. Boski, & P. Schmitz (Eds.), Journeys into cross-cultural psychology (pp. 278-293). Lisse, the Netherlands: Swets & Zeitlinger.
62.
Singelis, T. M. (Ed.). (1998). Teaching about culture, ethnicity, and diversity: Exercises and planned activities. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
63.
Singelis, T. M. , Bond, M. H., Lai, S. Y., & Sharkey, W. F. (1999). Unpackaging culture’s influence on self-esteem and embarrassability: The role of self-construals. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 30, 315-341.
64.
Singelis, T. M. , & Brown, W. J. (1995). Culture, self, and collectivist communication: Linking culture to individual behavior. Human Communication Research, 21, 354-389.
65.
Stevenson, H. W. , & Lee, S. -Y. (1996). The academic achievement of Chinese students. In M. H. Bond (Ed.), The handbook of Chinese psychology (pp. 124-142). Hong Kong: Oxford University Press.
66.
Stewart, S. M. , Bond, M. H., McBride-Chan, C., Fielding, R., Deed, O., & Westrick, J. (1998). Parent and adolescent contributors to teenage misconduct in Western and Asian high school students in Hong Kong. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 24, 847-869.
67.
Stewart, S. M. , Rao, N., Bond, M. H., McBride-Chan, C., Fielding, R., & Kennard, B. D. (1998). Chinese dimensions of parenting: Broadening Western predictors and outcomes. International Journal of Psychology, 33, 345-358.
68.
Sullivan, J. L. , & Transue, J. E. (1999). The psychological underpinnings of democracy: A selective review of research on political tolerance, interpersonal trust, and social capital. Annual Review of Psychology, 50, 625-650.
69.
Triandis, H. C. (1972). The analysis of subjective culture. New York: Wiley.
70.
Triandis, H. C. (1976). On the value of cross-cultural research in social psychology: Reactions to Fancheux’s paper. European Journal of Social Psychology, 6, 331-341.
71.
Triandis, H. C. (1989). The self and social behavior in differing cultural contexts. Psychological Review, 96, 506-520.
72.
Triandis, H. C. (1995). Individualism and collectivism. Boulder, CO: Westview.
73.
van de Vijver, F. J. R. , & Leung, K. (1997a). Methods and data analysis for cross-cultural research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
74.
van de Vijver, F. J. R. , & Leung, K. (1997b). Methods and data analysis of comparative research. In J. W. Berry, Y. H. Poortinga, & J. Pandey (Eds.), Handbook of cross-cultural psychology: Vol. 1. Theory and method (2nd ed., pp. 257-300). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
75.
Whiting, B. B. (1976). The problem of the packaged variable. In K. F. Riegel & J. A. Meacham (Eds.), The developing individual in a changing world (Vol. 1, pp. 303-309). Chicago: Aldine.
76.
Williams, J. E. , & Best, D. L. (1990). Sex and psyche: Gender and self viewed cross-culturally. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
77.
Yu, A. -B. , & Yang, K. -S. (1994). The nature of achievement motivation in collectivist societies. In U. Kim, H. C. Triandis, C. Kagitcibasi, & G. Yoon (Eds.), Individualism and collectivism: Theory, method, and applications (pp. 239-250). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
