Fascism in Italy: The Second Wave

1. Mussolini , Opera Omnia, ed. Pini G. Susmel E. (Florence 1951-), Vol. 21, pp. 238–9. Subsequent references to Mussolini's speeches or writings are, unless otherwise stated, taken from this source

2. Ibid. Vol. 20, pp. 61–2. See also his speech to the Assembly of the Fascist party 28 January 1924: ‘The fascist revolution is not bedecked with human sacrifices; it has not created special tribunals; the rattle of the firing-squads has not been heard; terror has not been exercised; emergency laws have not been promulgated.’ Ibid., p. 164

3. Popolo d'Italia, 5 August 1924, speech of V. Pellizzari

4. Pellizzi C. Problemi e realita del Fascismo (Florence: 1924), pp. 103,164

5. ACS (Archivio Centrale dello Stato), Carte Michele Bianchi, fasc. 43, I May 1923

6. Pagine di critica fascista (Florence, 1941), p. 221

7. See Lumbroso G. , La crisi del fascismo (Florence, 1925), passim.

Head of Mussolini's press office and a member of the Direttorio of the PNF. Arrested for complicity in the murder of Matteotti

9. ACS, Min. Interno, Gabinetto, Uff. Cifra, tel. in partenza, 30 May 1924, n. 12000

10. Salvemini G. , Scritti sul fascismo, vol. I, ed. Vivarelli R. (Milan, 1963), p. 219

11. St Antony's documents, 14 June 1924 (correspondence relating to Cabinet changes). Ibid., reference of Acerbo, 18 September 1924, to the ‘conspirators … of the 14th of June’

12. Giornale d'Italia, 30 December 1924. This count included the Liberals Casati and Sarrocchi, the two moderate Fascists de Stefani and Oviglio, the ex-Nationalist Federzoni, the Catholic Nara, and the two military ministers

13. Rocca M. , Come il fascismo divenne una dittatura (Milan: 1952), p. 124

14. Sarrocchi G. , Ricordi di un esule da Palazzo Madama (Florence: 1950), p. 27 n. On I January 1925 Popolo d'Italia wrote: ‘The government is fascist and Mussolinian, because no one can govern against fascism and against Mussolini.’

15. Opera Omnia, Vol. 21, p. 240. Popolo d'Italia, 3 January 1925: ‘to restrain the fascists it is necessary to restrain the press which provokes them … the Government's order prohibiting rallies and meetings and promoting an enquiry into the Florence incidents, is a new proof of the intentions of the rt. hon. Mussolini and his collaborators … The Government desires a legalitarian settlement.’

16. La Nazione, 25 November 1924: ‘If the creature did not obey its creator it might even happen that the latter would leave it to its destiny.’

17. Popolo d'Italia, 29 November 1924

18. ACS, Bianchi Carte Michele , fasc. 2, Arnaldo Mussolini to Bianchi, 27 November 1924

Balbo's successor was General Gandolfo; he was an ardent fascist who had previously been Prefect of Cagliari. Balbo had been appointed ‘temporary’ C in C of the Militia on the resignation of De Bono

20. Atti Parlamentari, Senato, Discussion, 27 legist.sessione I, pp.379-85(4 Dec.), (Giardino), pp. 485-8 (9 Dec.), (Zupelli), pp. 415-6 (5 Dec.), (Caviglia). For Mussolini's reply see Opera Omnia, Vol. 21, pp. 197-9

21. See ACS, Min. Interio Gabinetto Uff. cifra, 8 Dec. 1924, n. 26,409: General Gandolfo asks the Zone Commanders to report the impression made on the Consuls ‘by the new directives of the Militia’

22. ACS, Farinacci Carte , fasc. 3, 1924, s/f C., 26 Dec. 1924

Galbiati E. , II 25 Iuglio e la MVSN (Milan: 1950), pp. 37–9; R. Montagna, Mussolini e il processo di Verona (Milan: 1949), pp. 22-9; A. Tamaro, Venti anni di storia, Vol. 2 (Rome: 1952-4), pp. 60-2; E.M. Gray, ‘La genesi del 3 gennaio’, II meridiano d'Italia, 23 January 1949. The Militia Consul commanded a Legion, at full strength about 1500 men

24. Salvatorelli L. Mira G. , Storia d'Italia nel periodo fascista (Turin: 1956), p. 330

25. Gray loc. cit.; G. Pini and D. Susmel, Mussolini, l'uomo e l'opera (Florence: 1953), Vol. 2, p. 403

26. St Antony's documents; ACS, Min. Interno, Dir. Gen. P.S. AGR (Affari Generali e Riservati), 1924, b. 91 fasc. Ferrara, 29 Nov. 1924, b. 95, fasc. Ravenna, 30 Nov. 1924

27. Gorriere della Sera, 30 November 1924

28. ACS, Min. Interno Dir. Gen. P.S. AGR, 1924 b. 89 fasc. Bologna, I Dec. Prefect of Bologna to Mussolini

29. ACS, Min. Interno, Dir. Gen., P.S. AGR, 1924, b. 87, fasc. MVSN, s/f, Sistemazione dei gradi nella Milizia, Prefect of Bologna to Mussolini, 11 December 1924

30. ACS, Min. Interno Gabinetto Uff. cifra, Tel. in arrivo, 10 Dec. n. 39997, Prefect of Perugia to Min. Interior; ibid. Dir. Gen. P.S. AGR, b. 95, fasc. Perugia, 15 Dec. ibid

31. ACS, Min. Interno Gabinetto Uff. cifra. Tel. in arrivo, 17 Dec. n. 40680

32. Montagna R. , op. cit., p. 23. According to Gray six Consuls obtained an audience with Mussolini on the 23rd: but this is probably a confusion, as the other versions do not mention the fact. Or the meeting may have taken place, but have had no significance

33. ACS, Min. Interno Gabinetto Uff. cifra. Tel. in partenza. 23 Dec

34. Ibid. tel. arrivo, 23 Dec. Prefect of Perugia to Mussolini: ‘For the reasons I explained to you personally permit me to insist on the most rapid possible settlement for Gen. Agostini.’

35. Ibid. 29 Dec. Agostini's enemy, the federale of Perugia, Felicioni, was the source of the information: this suggests it was thought to be compromising

36. See also, in St Antony's documents, report of 28 March 1925 from Prefect of Milan to Mussolini describing Tarabella and Galbiati as the leaders of that part of the Militia which resented the appointment of Generals to the zone commands and feared that the system might be extended to the legions. They wanted instead to give the Militia ‘a squadrist character with its own leaders'. Their associates were Moschini (Mantova), Testa (Mirandola), and Candelori (Rome). This corroborates the later accounts, which mention Testa and Candelori as among the leaders, with Tamburini, Tarabella, and Galbiati

37. Popolo d'Italia, 30 November 1924. ‘Fascism-Government should be like a general staff, which should never be put into the difficult position of thinking that its will is not respected by the soldiers, or even discussed.’

38. Ibid. 1 December 1924

39. ACS, Min. Interno Gabinetto Uff. cifra. Tel. in arrivo, 1924, n. 39048, 30 Nov. Prefect of Florence to Mussolini

40. Salvemini , op. cit., pp. 134–6; C. Ronchi Bettarini, ‘Note sui rapporti tra fascismo “cittadino” e fascismo “agrario” in Toscana’, in La Toscana nell Italia unita (Florence: 1962), p. 372

41. Giornale d'Italia, 27 November 1924

42. ACS, Min. Interno Dir. Gen. P.S. AGR, 1924, b. 93 fasc. Milano, 30 Nov. Prefect of Milan to Mussolini

43. Bottai G. , Pagine di critica fascista, p. 325

44. 6 December, A. Luchini: the delimitation between party and government was necessary as the government ‘shows itself… extremely ill-adapted, we do not say to realize the postulates of the fascist revolution, but even … to direct the movement’

45. Interview with La Stampa, 23 December 1924

46. St Antony's documents, de Stefani to Mussolini, 5 January 1925

47. Paolucci R. , II mio piccolo mondo perduto (Bologna: 1947), p. 256

48. Giornale d'Italia, 19 December, quotes their circular: ‘some deputies who are old fascists have felt the necessity for an exchange of ideas among those who are best able to understand the absolute necessity of the defence of the ideals, and the political and moral programme of fascism.’

49. Paolucci , op. cit., pp. 257–8

50. Resto del Carlino, 20 December 1924

51. Salandra resigned before the publication of the Rossi memorial. For its motivation, see G.B. Gifuni, II Risorgimento, Feb. 1962, ‘Dalla crisi Matteotti alla proposta liberale delle dimissioni di Mussolini nella seduta del Consiglio dei ministri del 30 decembre 1924’

52. The actual measures taken were: (1) an instruction by Federzoni to the Prefects to apply the press censorship decree with rigour; (2) the arrest and search of the organizers of Italia Libera. (ACS, Min. Interno, Gabinetto, Uff. cifra, Tel. in partenza, 30 Dec.)

53. See Gifuni G. B. , II Risorgimento, Oct. 1962, ‘Verso la dittatura. II Diario Salandra del gennaio 1925’, pp. 196-7; 52-3. The Milanese Liberal associations, led by De Capitani, voted a motion of ‘absolute collaboration’ with the Government on 28 Dec.; ACS, Min. Interno Gabinetto Uff. cifra, Tel. in arrivo n. 41560, Prefect of Milan to Mussolini

Giornale d'Italia, 25 December, reports that the extremist deputies were to hold a meeting on 28 December and the moderates on 2 January

55. La Conquista dello Stato, 21 December 1924

56. Suckert commented that ‘Devotion cannot be carried to the point of suicide’. La Stampa, 26 December 1924

57. Giornale d'Italia, 30 December 1924

58. The journal of the Florentine fascists, Battaglie Fasciste, published Suckert's next attack: ‘All, even Mussolini, must obey the warning of integral fascism.’ La Conquista dello stato, 28 December 1924

59. Salvemini , op. cit., pp. III–2; ACS, Min. Interno Gabinetto Uff. cifra, tel. in arrivo 31 Dec. 1924 n. 41835, ibid. n. 41867, ibid. 1 Jan. 1925 n. 23. Battaglie Fasciste, 4 January 1925; Nuovo Giornale, 31 December 1924

60. Battaglie Fasciste, 4 January 1925

61. Cremona Nuova, 2 January 1925; Popolo d'Italia, 1 January 1925: ‘The fascist assemblies, summoned by local initiative and not that of the Direzione of the party, have been provoked by the perfidy of the opposition.’

62. Gifuni G. B. , op. cit., p. 199; Sarrocchi, when he saw Salandra on 5 January, ‘did not dissent from my opinion concerning the responsibility of the Government for, or rather their direct instigation of, the Florence disorders’. Ibid., p. 200

63. La Conquista dello Stato, 18 January 1925

64. Montagna , op. cit., p. 24

66. ACS, Carte Michele Bianchi, fasc. 6, 17 Sep. 1924

67. Even at Florence, the ‘second wave’ was preceded by a number of arrests carried out by the police (Salvemini, op. cit.)

68. Cremona Nuova, 23 December 1924

69. Ibid. 24 December 1924

70. Montagna , op. cit., pp. 28–9. Besides Torre, Acerbo and Balbo had been members of the Piazza Gesu freemasonry. (A. Tasca, Nascita e avvento del Fascismo (Florence: 1965), p. 504. Tamburini and Suckert are also listed, but the source is dubious

71. Galbiati , op. cit., pp. 47–62; St Antony's documents.

72. My italics. ACS, Segreteria Particolare del Duce, Carteggio riservato, 242/R, Roberto Farinacci, Chiavolini to Prefect of Cremona, 20 February 1925

73. St Antony's documents, 4 January 1925, Sarrocchi to Mussolini. A concern with legality is apparent in Federzoni's instructions to search the houses of Italia Libera leaders, ‘deputies excluded’. (ACS, Min. Interno, Gabinetto, Uff. cifra, Tel. in partenza, 30 Dec. Federzoni to Prefect of Genoa.)

74. La Conquista dello Stato, 4 January 1925. Ibid, 18 January, claimed that Mussolini's measures were essentially directed against the fascist movement, and to frustrate an integralist coup.

75. Giornale d'Italia, 13 January 1925