This article studies the various mechanisms by which democracy affects transnational terrorism. New theoretical mechanisms are identified that either complement or encompass existing arguments. Different effects of democracy on transnational terrorism are assessed for a sample of about 119 countries from 1975 to 1997. Results show that democratic participation reduces transnational terrorist incidents in a country, while government constraints increase the number of those incidents, subsuming the effect of press freedom. The proportional representation system experiences fewer transnational terrorist incidents than either the majoritarian or the mixed system.
Achen, Christopher H.2000. Why lagged dependent variables can suppress the explanatory power of other independent variables. Working paper, Society for Political Methodology, St. Louis, WA. Accessed from http://www.polmeth.ufl.edu/working00.alpha.html/.
2.
Aiken, L. S., and S. G. West. 1991. Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
3.
Atkinson, Scott, Todd Sandler, and John Tschirhart. 1987. Terrorism in a bargaining framework. Journal of Law and Economics30 (1): 1-21.
4.
Beck, Nathaniel, and Jonathan Katz. 2001. Throwing out the baby with the bathwater: A comment on Greene, Yoon and Kim. International Organization55 (2): 487-495.
5.
Blomberg, S. Brock, Gregory D. Hess, and Akila Weerapana. 2004. Economic conditions and terrorism. European Journal of Political Economy20 (2): 463-478.
6.
Cameron, A. Colin, and Pravin K. Trivedi. 1986. Economic models based on count data: Comparisons and applications of some estimators &! tests. Journal of Applied Econometrics1 (1): 29-53.
7.
Chatterjee, S., A. S. Hadi, and B. Price. 2000. Regression analysis by example. New York: John Wiley.
8.
Colomer, Josep M.2001. Political institutions: Democracy and social choice. New York: Oxford University Press.
9.
Crenshaw, Martha. 1981. The causes of terrorism. Comparative Politics13 (4): 379-399.
10.
Dahl, Robert A.1971. Polyarchy: Participation and opposition. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
11.
Dahl, Robert A.. 1998. On democracy. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
12.
Deininger, Klaus, and Lyn Squire. 1996. A new dataset measuring income inequality. World Bank Economic Review10: 565-591.
13.
Dixon, William J.1994. Democracy and the peaceful settlement of international conflict. American Political Science Review88: 14-32.
14.
Enders, Walter, and Todd Sandler. 1999. Transnational terrorism in the post-cold war era. International Studies Quarterly43 (1): 145-167.
15.
Enders, Walter, and Todd Sandler. 2002. Patterns of transnational terrorism 1970-99: Alternative time series estimates. International Studies Quarterly46 (2): 145-165.
16.
Eubank, William, and Leonard Weinberg. 1994. Does democracy encourage terrorism?Terrorism and Political Violence6 (4): 417-443.
17.
Eubank, William, and Leonard Weinberg. 1998. Terrorism and democracy: What recent events disclose. Terrorism and Political Violence10 (1): 108-118.
18.
Eubank, William, and Leonard Weinberg. 2001. Terrorism and democracy: Perpetrators and victims. Terrorism and Political Violence13 (1): 155-164.
19.
Eyerman, Joe. 1998. Terrorism and democratic states: Soft targets or accessible systems. International Interactions24 (2): 151-170.
20.
Fearon, James, and David Laitin. 2003. Ethnicity, insurgency, and civil war. American Political Science Review97 (1): 75-90.
21.
Feng, Yi, and Paul J. Zak. 1999. The determinants of democratic transitions. Journal of Conflict Resolution43 (2): 162-177.
22.
Freedom House. 2000. Annual surveys of freedom country ratings 1972-73 to 1999-00. New York: Freedom House. Available: www.freedomhouse.org.
23.
Gleditsch, Nils Petter, Peter Wallensteen, Mikael Eriksson, Margareta Sollenberg, and Håvard Strand. 2002. Armed conflict 1946-2001: A new dataset. Journal of Peace Research39 (5): 615-637.
24.
Golder, Matt. Forthcoming. Democratic electoral systems around the world,1946-2000. Electoral Studies.
25.
Greene, William H.1997. Econometric analysis. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
26.
Heston, Alan, Robert Summers, and Bettina Aten. 2002. Penn world table version 6.1. Philadelphia: Center for International Comparisons at the University of Pennsylvania (CICUP).
27.
Huber, John D., and G. Bingham Powell Jr.1994. Congruence between citizens and policymakers in two visions of liberal democracy. World Politics46 (3): 291-326.
28.
Li, Quan, and Rafael Reuveny. 2003. Economic globalization and democracy: An empirical analysis. British Journal of Political Science33 (1): 29-54.
29.
Li, Quan, and Drew Schaub. 2004. Economic globalization and transnational terrorist incidents: A pooled time series analysis. Journal of Conflict Resolution48 (2): 230-258.
30.
Long, J. Scott. 1997. Regression models for categorical and limited dependent variables. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
31.
Marshall, Monty G., and Keith Jaggers. 2000. Polity IV project: Political regime characteristics and transitions, 1800-2000 dataset users manual. Retrieved February 5, 2003, from http://www.bsos.umd.edu/cidcm/inscr/polity/index.htm%23data/.
32.
Mickolus, Edward F., Todd Sandler, Jean M. Murdock, and Peter Flemming. 2003. International terrorism: Attributes of terrorist events, 1968-2001. Dunn Loring, VA: Vinyard Software.
33.
Neumayer, Eric, Scott Gates, and Nils Petter Gleditsch. 2003. Environmental commitment, democracy and inequality. Background paper to World Development Report 2003, World Bank, Washington, D.C.
34.
Reynal-Querol, Marta. 2002. Political systems, stability and civil wars. Defence and Peace Economics13 (6): 465-483.
35.
Rogers, William H.1993. Regression standard errors in clustered samples. Stata Technical Bulletin13: 19-23.
36.
Ross, Jeffrey Ian. 1993. Structural causes of oppositional political terrorism: Towards a causal model. Journal of Peace Research30 (3): 317-329.
37.
Sandler, Todd. 1995. On the relationship between democracy and terrorism. Terrorism and Political Violence12 (2): 97-122.
38.
Schmid, Alex P.1992. Terrorism and democracy. Terrorism and Political Violence4 (4): 14-25.
39.
Van Belle, Douglas. 1997. Press freedom and the democratic peace. Journal of Peace Research34 (4): 405-414.
40.
Van Belle, Douglas. 2000. Press freedom and global politics. Westport, CT: Praeger.
41.
Vanhanen, Tatu. 2000a. A new dataset for measuring democracy, 1810-1998. Journal of Peace Research37 (2): 251-265.
42.
Vanhanen, Tatu. 2000b. The Polyarchy dataset: Vanhanen’s index of democracy. Accessed from http://www.svt.ntnu.no/iss/data/vanhanen/.
43.
Wilkinson, Paul. 2001. Terrorism versus democracy: The liberal state response. Portland, OR: Frank Cass.
44.
Williams, Rick L.2000. A note on robust variance estimation for cluster-correlated data. Biometrics56 (2): 645-646.
45.
World Bank. 2002. The 2002 world development indicators CD-ROM. Washington, D.C.: World Bank.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
