The functional theory of attitudes was applied to the problem of interpersonal perception and stereotyping in power relationships to predict the content of stereotypes of subordinated groups. An examination of stereotypes of women in the United States and Turkey tested the following three hypotheses: (1) Both American and Turkish males will attribute the predicted stereotyped traits more to women than to men, (2) Turks will perceive greater differences between the sexes than will Americans, (3) Turkish males and females will agree more closely on the characteristics of women than will American males and females. The first two hypotheses were supported, while the third was rejected. A time-lag model of ideological change was suggested to explain the failure to support the third hypothesis.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Albrecht, S. L. , Bahr, H. M., & Chadwick, B. A.Public stereotyping of sex roles, personality characteristics, and occupations. Sociology and Social Research, 1977, 61(2), 223-240.
2.
Bem, S. L. , & Bem, D. J.Case study of a nonconscious ideology: Training the woman to know her place. In D. J. Bem (Ed.) Beliefs, Attitude, and Human Affairs. Belmont, CA: Brooks-Cole, 1972.
3.
Best, D. L. , Williams, J. E., and Briggs, S. R.A further analysis of the affective meanings associated with male and female sex-trait stereotypes. Sex Roles, 1980, 6, 735-746.
4.
Berger, P. , & Luckmann, T.The social construction of reality: A treatise in the sociology of knowledge. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1966.
5.
Broverman, I. D. , Broverman, D. M., Clarkson, F. E., Rosenkrantz, P. S., & Vogel, S. R.Sex-role stereotypes and clinical judgments of mental health. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1970, 34, 1-7.
6.
Broverman, I. D. , Vogel, S. R., Broverman, D. M., Clarkson, F. E., & Rosenkrantz, P. S.Sex role stereotypes: A current appraisal. Journal of Social Issues, 1972, 59-78.
7.
Ellis, L. F. , & Bentler, P. M.Traditional sex-determined role standards and sex stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1973, 25(1), 28-34.
8.
Johnson, P.Women and power: Toward a theory of effectiveness . Journal of Social Issues, 1976, 32(3), 99-110.
9.
Kağitçibaşi, I;. & Kansu, A.Cinsiyet rollerinin sosyallesmesi ve aile dinamiği: Kuşaklararasi bir karsilaştirma (Sex role socialization and family dynamics: An intergenerational comparison). Boğaziçi Üiversitesi Dergisi, 1977, 4/5, 35-48.
10.
Kandiyoti, D.Sex roles and social change: A comparative appraisal of Turkey's woman . Signs3(1), 57-73.
11.
Kaplan, R. M. , & Goldman, R. D.Stereotypes of college students toward the average man's and woman's attitueds toward women. Journal of Counseling Psychology2O(5), 459-462.
12.
Katz, D.The functional approach to the study of attitudes . Public Opinion Quarterly, 1960, 24, 163-204.
13.
Kazgan, G.Türk ekonomisinde kadinlarin isgücüne katilmasi, mesleki dagilimi, egitim duzeyi ve sosyo-ekonomik statüsü (Women's labor force participation, occupational distribution, educational level, and socioeconomic status in the Turkish economy). In N. Agadan-Unat (Ed.) Turk toplumunda kadin. Ankara: Turkish Social Science Association, 1979.
14.
Kravetz, D. F.Sex role concepts of women . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology44(3), 437-443.
15.
Leahy, R. L. , & Editer, M.Moral judgment and the development of real and ideal androgynous self-image during adolescence and young adulthood. Developmental Psychology, 1980, 16(4), 362-370.
16.
McKee, J. P. , & Sherriffs, A. C.The differential evaluation of males and females. Journal of Personality, 1957, 25(3), 356-371.
17.
McKee, J. P. , & Sheriffs, A. C.Men's and women's beliefs, ideals, and self-concepts. American Journal of Sociology, 1959, 64(4), 356-363.
18.
O'Leary, V. E. , & Depner, C. E.College males' ideal female: Changes in sex-role stereotypes. Journal of Social Psycholoty, 1975, 94(1), 139-140.
19.
Osgood, E. E. , Suci, G. J., & Tannenbaum, P. H.The measurement of meaning. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1957.
20.
Parelius, A. P.Emerging sex-role attitudes, expectations, and strains among college women . Journal of Marriage and Family, 1975, 37(1), 146-153.
21.
Polk, B. B.Male power and the women's movement . Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 1974, 10(3), 415-431.
22.
Ring, K. & Kelley, H. H.A comparison of augmentation and reduction as modes of influence. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1963, 66, 95-102.
23.
Smith, M. B. , Bruner, J. S., & White, R. W.Opinions and personality. New York: John Wiley, 1974.
24.
Spence, J. T. , Helmreich, R., & Stapp, J.Ratings of self and peers on sex-role attributes and their relation to self-esteem and conceptions of masculinity and feminity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1975, 32(1), 29-39.
25.
Sunar, D. G. Interpersonal perception in power relationships. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California, Berkeley.
26.
Sunar, D. G.The view from the bottom up: Stereotypes of the powerful . METU Studies in Development, 1977, 15, 109-122.
27.
Sunar, D. G.Stereotypes of the powerless: A social psychological analysis . Psychological Reports, 1978, 43, 511-528.
28.
Turner, S. A.Male and female attitudes toward sex-role concepts . Psychology12(1), 27-29.
29.
Vos, J. H. , & Skinner, D. A.Concepts of self and ideal women held by college women: A replication. Journal of College Student Personnel, 1975, 16, 210-213.
30.
Williams, J. E. , & Bennett, S. M.The definition of sex stereotypes via the Adjective Checklist. Sex Roles, 1975, 1(4), 327-338.
31.
Williams, J. E. , & Best, D.Sex stereotypes and trait favorability on the Adjective Checklist. Education and Psychological Measurement, 1977, 37(1), 101-110.
32.
Williams, J. E. , Daws, J. T., Best, D. L., Tilquin, C., Wesley F., & Bjerke, T.Sex Stereotypes in France, Germany, and Norway. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 1979, 10, 133-156.
33.
Williams, J. E. , & Best, D. L.Measuring sex stereotypes: A thirty-nation study. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1982.
