Olive pruning is waste from olive cultivation and is generally disposed of through incineration. Olive pruning can, however, be salvaged by pyrolysis, which also produces an interesting carbon-based material known as biochar. Biochar has been proved as a suitable filler which improves the mechanical properties of epoxy composites. Despite this, literature has few studied focused on the relationship between biochar thermal history and the properties it induces in related biochar containing composites. In this work, we report a morphological analysis of biochar produced at different pyrolytic high treatment temperatures (400℃, 600℃, 800℃, and 1000℃) using different heating rates (5℃/min, 15℃/min, and 50℃/min). We investigate the effect of different biochar morphology on the biochar epoxy-related composites, proving the tuneability of the mechanical properties of composites according to the thermal history of the biochar employed.
LoumouAGiourgaC. Olive groves: “the life and identity of the Mediterranean”. Agricul Human Values2003; 20: 87–95.
2.
OterosJOrlandiFGarcía-MozoH, et al.Better prediction of Mediterranean olive production using pollen-based models. Agron Sustain Develop2014; 34: 685–694.
3.
CasadoRRRiveraJAGarcíaEB, et al.Classification and characterisation of SRF produced from different flows of processed MSW in the Navarra region and its co-combustion performance with olive tree pruning residues. Waste Manag2016; 47: 206–216.
4.
ConesaJADomeneA. Biomasses pyrolysis and combustion kinetics through n-th order parallel reactions. Thermochimica Acta2011; 523: 176–181.
5.
VamvukaDSfakiotakisSKotronakisM. Fluidized bed combustion of residues from oranges’ plantations and processing. Renew Energy2012; 44: 231–237.
6.
BensaidSContiRFinoD. Direct liquefaction of ligno-cellulosic residues for liquid fuel production. Fuel2012; 94: 324–332.
7.
HernándezJJAranda-AlmansaGBulaA. Gasification of biomass wastes in an entrained flow gasifier: effect of the particle size and the residence time. Fuel Process Technol2010; 91: 681–692.
8.
ZabaniotouAKalogiannisGKappasE, et al.Olive residues (cuttings and kernels) rapid pyrolysis product yields and kinetics. Biomass Bioenergy2000; 18: 411–420.
9.
LairdDABrownRCAmonetteJE, et al.Review of the pyrolysis platform for coproducing bio-oil and biochar. Biofuels Bioprod Bioref2009; 3: 547–562.
10.
LiuZQuekAHoekmanSK, et al.Production of solid biochar fuel from waste biomass by hydrothermal carbonization. Fuel2013; 103: 943–949.
11.
AhmadMRajapakshaAULimJE, et al.Biochar as a sorbent for contaminant management in soil and water: a review. Chemosphere2014; 99: 19–33.
12.
VijayaraghavanK. A review on biochar feedstocks, production, characterization, modification and potential applications. J Environ Biotechnol Res2018; 7: 11–11.
13.
GiorcelliMBartoliM. Development of coffee biochar filler for the production of electrical conductive reinforced plastic. Polymers2019; 11(12): 1916.
14.
AngınD. Effect of pyrolysis temperature and heating rate on biochar obtained from pyrolysis of safflower seed press cake. Bioresource Technol2013; 128: 593–597.
15.
WajidASAhmedHTDasS, et al.High-performance pristine graphene/epoxy composites with enhanced mechanical and electrical properties. Macromol Mater Eng2013; 298: 339–347.
16.
WangFDrzalLTQinY, et al.Mechanical properties and thermal conductivity of graphene nanoplatelet/epoxy composites. J Mater Sci2015; 50: 1082–1093.
17.
GojnyFHWichmannMHFiedlerB, et al.Influence of different carbon nanotubes on the mechanical properties of epoxy matrix composites—a comparative study. Compos Sci Technol2005; 65: 2300–2313.
18.
SandlerJShafferMPrasseT, et al.Development of a dispersion process for carbon nanotubes in an epoxy matrix and the resulting electrical properties. Polymer1999; 40: 5967–5971.
SmailFBoiesAWindleA. Direct spinning of CNT fibres: past, present and future scale up. Carbon2019; 152: 218–232.
21.
DasOSarmahAKBhattacharyyaD. A sustainable and resilient approach through biochar addition in wood polymer composites. Sci Total Environ2015; 512: 326–336.
22.
DasOBhattacharyyaDSarmahAK. Sustainable eco-composites obtained from waste derived biochar: a consideration in performance properties, production costs, and environmental impact. J Clean Prod2016; 129: 159–168.
23.
ZhangQCaiHRenX, et al.The dynamic mechanical analysis of highly filled rice husk biochar/high-density polyethylene composites. Polymers2017; 9: 628–628.
24.
ArrigoRJagdalePBartoliM, et al.Structure–property relationships in polyethylene-based composites filled with biochar derived from waste coffee grounds. Polymers2019; 11: 1336–1336.
25.
IkramSDasOBhattacharyyaD. A parametric study of mechanical and flammability properties of biochar reinforced polypropylene composites. Compos Part A Appl Sci Manufact2016; 91: 177–188.
26.
DeVallanceDBOportoGSQuigleyP. Investigation of hardwood biochar as a replacement for wood flour in wood–polypropylene composites. J Elastom Plast2016; 48: 510–522.
27.
DasOBhattacharyyaDHuiD, et al.Mechanical and flammability characterisations of biochar/polypropylene biocomposites. Compos Part B Eng2016; 106: 120–128.
28.
DasOKimNKSarmahAK, et al.Development of waste based biochar/wool hybrid biocomposites: flammability characteristics and mechanical properties. J Clean Prod2017; 144: 79–89.
29.
NanNDeVallanceDBXieX, et al.The effect of bio-carbon addition on the electrical, mechanical, and thermal properties of polyvinyl alcohol/biochar composites. J Compos Mater2016; 50: 1161–1168.
30.
RanaSAlagirusamyRJoshiM. A review on carbon epoxy nanocomposites. J Reinfor Plast Compos2009; 28: 461–487.
31.
LamichhaneAXuCZhangF-q. Dental fiber-post resin base material: a review. J Adv Prosthodont2014; 6: 60–65.
32.
ToldyASzolnokiBMarosiG. Flame retardancy of fibre-reinforced epoxy resin composites for aerospace applications. Polym Degrad Stab2011; 96: 371–376.
33.
GiorcelliMKhanAPugnoNM, et al.Biochar as a cheap and environmental friendly filler able to improve polymer mechanical properties. Biomass Bioenergy2019; 120: 219–223.
34.
OralI. Determination of elastic constants of epoxy resin/biochar composites by ultrasonic pulse echo overlap method. Polym Compos2016; 37: 2907–2915.
35.
KhanASaviPQuarantaS, et al.Low-cost carbon fillers to improve mechanical properties and conductivity of epoxy composites. Polymers2017; 9: 642–642.
36.
Mashouf RoudsariGMohantyAKMisraM. A statistical approach to develop biocomposites from epoxy resin, poly (furfuryl alcohol), poly (propylene carbonate), and biochar. J Appl Polym Sci2017; 134: 45307–45307.
37.
BartoliMGiorcelliMRossoC, et al.Influence of commercial biochar fillers on brittleness/ductility of epoxy resin composites. Appl Sci2019; 9: 3109–3109.
38.
PituelloCFranciosoOSimonettiG, et al.Characterization of chemical–physical, structural and morphological properties of biochars from biowastes produced at different temperatures. J Soils Sed2015; 15: 792–804.
39.
DownieACroskyAMunroeP. Physical properties of biochar. Biochar Environ Manag Sci Technol2009; 2: 13–32.
40.
GabhiRSKirkDWJiaCQ. Preliminary investigation of electrical conductivity of monolithic biochar. Carbon2017; 116: 435–442.
41.
JenkinsSH. The determination of cellulose in straws. Biochem J1930; 24: 1428–1428.
42.
RitterGJSeborgRMitchellR. Factors affecting quantitative determination of lignin by 72 per cent sulfuric acid method. Industr Eng Chem Analyt Edn1932; 4: 202–204.
43.
YangHYanRChenH, et al.Characteristics of hemicellulose, cellulose and lignin pyrolysis. Fuel2007; 86: 1781–1788.
44.
SkreibergASkreibergØSandquistJ, et al.TGA and macro-TGA characterisation of biomass fuels and fuel mixtures. Fuel2011; 90: 2182–2197.
45.
MazlanMUemuraYOsmanN, et al.Characterizations of bio-char from fast pyrolysis of Meranti wood sawdust. J Phys Conf Series2015, pp. p.012054–012062–p.012054–012062.
46.
BallesterosIBallesterosMCaraC, et al.Effect of water extraction on sugars recovery from steam exploded olive tree pruning. Bioresour Technol2011; 102: 6611–6616.
47.
WeberKQuickerP. Properties of biochar. Fuel2018; 217: 240–261.
48.
DemirbasA. Effects of temperature and particle size on bio-char yield from pyrolysis of agricultural residues. J Anal Appl Pyrol2004; 72: 243–248.
49.
ShenJWangX-SGarcia-PerezM, et al.Effects of particle size on the fast pyrolysis of oil mallee woody biomass. Fuel2009; 88: 1810–1817.
50.
YuanHLuTHuangH, et al.Influence of pyrolysis temperature on physical and chemical properties of biochar made from sewage sludge. J Anal Appl Pyrol2015; 112: 284–289.
51.
FerrariACRobertsonJ. Interpretation of Raman spectra of disordered and amorphous carbon. Phys Rev B2000; 61: 14095–14095.
52.
SunYGaoBYaoY, et al.Effects of feedstock type, production method, and pyrolysis temperature on biochar and hydrochar properties. Chem Eng J2014; 240: 574–578.
53.
McGrathTSharmaRHajaligolM. An experimental investigation into the formation of polycyclic-aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) from pyrolysis of biomass materials. Fuel2001; 80: 1787–1797.
54.
MayC. Epoxy resins: chemistry and technology, Boca Raton: Routledge, 2018.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
