What emerged as a goal for Frances Ellen Watkins Harper (1825—1911) was no less than making a paradise on Earth—beginning with the United States. She embraced a socioreligious mission fueled by two concerns: First, material success should not stand as the major focus of one’s life; second, reform had to begin with the individual but expand to the community. Especially in Sowing and Reaping (1876), she emphasized these ideas and the necessity of excluding oppression and selfishness by acting as Christ’s followers— namely, by sacrificing the self for others. Harper paralleled three issues in their power to kill the soul: slavery as sin, intemperance (of any kind) as sin, and gold-seeking materialism as sin. She offered the same solution for the elimination of all three: a life spent doing good deeds.
Anderson, V.D. ( 1991). New England’s generation: The great migration and the formation of society and culture in the seventeenth century. New York: Cambridge University Press.
2.
Anderson, W.G. ( 1973). Progressivism: An historical essay. The History Teacher, 6, 427-452.
3.
Banton, M. ( 1998). Racial theories. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
4.
Bernasconi, R. ( 2002). Introduction. In American theories of polygenesis (pp. v-xii). Bristol, UK: Thoemes Press.
5.
Bond, E.L. ( 2000). Damned souls in a tobacco colony: Religion in seventeenth-century Virginia. Macon, GA: Mercer University Press.
6.
Brown, B.R. ( 2004, November). Human variety: The species question and the origins of race. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Studies Association, Atlanta, GA .
7.
Brown, E.B. ( 2003). Negotiating and transforming the public sphere: African American political life in the transition from slavery to freedom. In C. West & E. S. Glaude Jr. (Eds.), African American religious thought: An anthology (pp. 435-476). Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press.
8.
Brown, I.V. ( 1950). Lyman Abbott: Christian evolutionist. The New England Quarterly, 23, 218-231.
9.
Coffin, H.S. ( 1970). Religion yesterday and today. Freeport , NY: Books for Libraries Press.
10.
Cone, J.H. ( 1990). A Black theology of liberation. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis.
11.
Craven, F.W. ( 1932). Dissolution of the Virginia company. New York: Oxford University Press.
12.
Davis, F.J. ( 2001). Who is Black? One nation’s definition. Philadelphia: Pennsylvania State University Press.
13.
DeBerg, B.A. ( 1990). Ungodly women: Gender and the first wave of American fundamentalism. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press.
14.
Degler, C.N. ( 1991). In search of human nature: The decline and revival of Darwinism in American social thought. New York: Oxford University Press.
15.
Dennis, R.M. ( 1995). Social Darwinism, scientific racism, and the metaphysics of race. Journal of Negro Education, 64, 243-252.
16.
Du Bois, W.E.B. ( 1997). The souls of Black folk. New York : Vintage Books / Library of America.
17.
Dyer, R. (1997). White. New York: Routledge.
18.
Ernest, J. ( 1992). From mysteries to histories: Cultural pedagogy in Frances E. W. Harper’s Iola Leroy. American Literature, 64, 497-518.
19.
Ernest, J. ( 2002). Liberation historiography: African-American historians before the Civil War. American Literary History, 14, 413-443.
20.
Ernest, J. ( 2004). Liberation historiography: African American writers and the challenge of history, 1794-1861. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
21.
Fitzpatrick, E. ( 1990). Endless crusade: Women social scientists and progressive reform. New York: Oxford University Press.
22.
Foster, F.S. ( 1994). "Minnie’s sacrifice," "Sowing and reaping," and "Trial and triumph": Three rediscovered novels by Frances E. W. Harper. Boston: Beacon Press.
23.
Foster, F.S. ( 1997). Gender, genre and vulgar secularism: The case of Frances Ellen Watkins Harper and the AME press. In D. Hubbard (Ed.), Recovered writers/recovered texts (pp. 46-59). Knoxville : University of Tennessee Press.
24.
Frankel, N., & Dye, N. S. (Eds.). (1991). Gender, class, race, and reform in the progressive era. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky.
25.
Frederickson, G.M. ( 1971). The Black image in the White mind: A debate on Afro-American character and destiny, 1817-1914. Hanover, NH: Wesleyan University Press.
26.
Fudge, T.A. ( 1998). Daniel Warner and the paradox of religious democracy in nineteenth-century America. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellin Press.
27.
Giele, J.Z. ( 1995). Two paths to women’s equality: Temperance, suffrage, and the origins of modern feminism. New York: Twayne.
28.
Gullett, G. ( 1993). A contest over meaning: Finding gender, class, and race in progressivism. History of Education Quarterly, 33, 233-239.
29.
Haller, J.S., Jr. ( 1970). The species problem: Nineteenth-century concepts of racial inferiority in the origin of man controversy. American Anthropologist , 72, 1319-1329.
30.
Harper, F.E.W. ( 1990a). Our greatest want. In F. S. Foster (Ed.), A brighter coming day: A Frances Ellen Watkins Harper reader (pp. 102-104). New York: Feminist Press.
31.
Harper, F.E.W. ( 1990b). The Woman’s Christian Temperance Union and the colored woman. In F. S. Foster (Ed.), A brighter coming day: A Frances Ellen Watkins Harper reader (pp. 281-285). New York: Feminist Press.
32.
Harper, F.E.W. ( 1994a). Duty to dependent races. In M. J. Boyd (Ed.), Discarded legacy: Politics and poetics in the life of Frances Ellen Watkins Harper (1825-1911) (pp. 208-212). Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press.
33.
Harper, F.E.W. ( 1994b). "Minnie’s sacrifice," "Sowing and reaping," and "Trial and triumph": Three undiscovered novels by Frances E. W. Harper (F. S. Foster, Ed.). Boston: Beacon Press. (Originally published 1869 [Minnie’s], 1876 [Sowing])
34.
Harris, C. ( 1993). Whiteness as property. Harvard Law Review , 106, 1709-1791.
35.
Hofstadter, R. ( 1959). Social darwinism in American thought. New York: Braziller.
36.
Hoobler, T., & Hoobler, D. ( 2005). Captain John Smith: Jamestown and the birth of the American dream. Inianapolis, IN: John Wiley .
37.
Horn, J.P.P. ( 2005). A land as God made it: Jamestown and the birth of America . New York: Basic Books.
38.
Johnston, R.D. ( 2003). The radical middle class: Populist democracy and the question of capitalism in progressive era Portland, Oregon. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
39.
Katz, W. L. (Ed.). (1969). Walker’s appeal in four articles. New York: Arno Press.
40.
Lasch, C. ( 1965). New radicalism in America, 1889-1963: The intellectual as a social type. New York: Knopf .
41.
Lovejoy, D.S. ( 1990). Plain Englishmen at Plymouth. The New England Quarterly, 63, 232-242.
42.
MacFarland, G.W. ( 1963). The New York mugwumps of 1884: A profile. Political Science Quarterly, 78, 40-58.
43.
MacFarland, G.W. ( 1976). Mugwumps, morals, and politics, 1884-1920. Springfield: University of Massachusetts Press.
44.
Marchand, M.V. ( 2001). Death to lady bountiful: Women and reform in Edith Wharton’s The Fruit of the Tree. Legacy, 18, 65-78.
45.
Marty, M. ( 1961). The infidel: Freethought and American religion. Cleveland, OH: Meridian Books.
46.
Marty, M. ( 1977). The land and the city in American religious conflict . Review of Religious Research, 18, 211-232.
47.
Mills, C.W. ( 1997). The racial contract. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
48.
Morton, P. ( 1984). The vital science: Biology and the literary imagination, 1860-1900. Boston: Allen & Unwin .
49.
Nelson, J.K. ( 2001). A blessed company: Parishes, parsons, and parishioners in Anglican Virginia, 1690-1776. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
50.
New Confraternity of Christian Doctrine Scholars. ( 1963). Saint Joseph edition of the Holy Bible (textbook ed.) . New York: Catholic Book.
51.
Ostwalt, C.E., Jr. ( 1990). After Eden: The secularization of American space in the fiction of Willa Cather and Theodore Dreiser. Lewisburg, PA: Bucknell University Press.
52.
Payne, D.A. ( 1891). A history of the African Methodist Episcopal Church. Nashville, TN: Publishing House of the AME Sunday School .
53.
Peterson, C.L. ( 1996). "Doers of the word": African-American women speakers and writers in the North, 1830-1880. New York: Oxford University Press.
54.
Raboteau, A.J. ( 2001). Canaan land: A religious history of African-Americans . New York: Oxford University Press .
55.
Raboteau, A.J. ( 2003). "Ethiopia shall soon stretch forth her hands": Black destiny in nineteenth-century America. In C. Wesy & E. S. Glaude Jr. (Eds.), African American religious thought: An anthology (pp. 397-413). Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press.
56.
Roberts, J.D., Sr. ( 1976). Black liberation theism. Journal of Religious Thought, 33, 25-35.
57.
Roediger, D.R. ( 1991). The wages of Whiteness: Race and the making of the American working class. New York: Verso.
58.
Roediger, D.R. ( 1999). The pursuit of Whiteness: Property, terror, and expansion, 1790-1860. Journal of the Early Republic, 19, 579-600.
59.
Rosenthal, D.J. ( 1997). Deracialized discourse: Temperance and racial ambiguity in Harper’s "The two offers" and Sowing and Reaping. In D. S. Rosenthal & D. J. Amherst (Eds.), The serpent in the cup: Temperance in American literature (pp. 153-164). Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press.
60.
Rouse, J.A. ( 1991). Atlanta’s African-American women’s attack on segregation, 1900-1920. In N. Frankel & N. S. Dye (Eds.), Gender, class, race, and reform in the progressive era (pp. 10-23). Lexington: University Press of Kentucky.
61.
Sams, C.W. ( 1929). The conquest of Virginia: The second attempt. Norfolk, VA: Keyser-Doherty.
62.
Scott, A.M. ( 1959). The progressive era in perspective. Journal of Politics, 21, 685-701.
63.
Shiels, R.D. ( 1981). The feminization of American congregationalism, 1730-1835 . American Quarterly, 33, 46-62.
64.
Sklansky, J. ( 2004). Progress and populism. Reviews in American History, 32, 58-67.
65.
Smith, C.S. ( 1922). A history of the African Methodist Episcopal Church: Being a volume supplemental to a history of the African Methodist Episcopal Church, by Daniel Alexander Payne, DD, LLD, late one of its bishops: Chronicling the principal events in the advance of the African Methodist Episcopal Church from 1856-1922. Philadelphia: Book Concern of the AME Church.
66.
Smith, T.L. ( 1957). Revivalism and social reform in mid-nineteenth-century America. New York: Abington Press .
67.
Stocking, G.W., Jr. (1994). The turn-of-the-century concept of race. Modernism/Modernity, 1(1), 4-16.
68.
Taylor, A.A. ( 1924). Religious influences. Journal of Negro History, 9, 346-364.
69.
Terborg-Penn, R. ( 1991). African-American women’s networks in the anti-lynching crusade. In N. Frankel & N. S. Dye (Eds.), Gender, class, race, and reform in the progressive era (pp. 148-161). Lexington: University Press of Kentucky.
70.
Thelen, D.P. ( 1969). Social tensions and the origins of progressivism. Journal of American History, 56, 323-341.
71.
Walter, F. ( 1934). Populism. PMLA, 49, 356-364.
72.
West, C., & Glaude, E. S. Jr. (Eds.). (2003). African American religious thought: An anthology. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press.
73.
Williams, R.H., & Alexander, S.N. (1994). Religious rhetoric in American populism: Civil religion as movement ideology. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 33, 1-15.
74.
Witvliet, T. ( 1987). The way of the Black messiah. Minneapolis, MN: Meyer Stone Books.
75.
Wood, F.G. ( 1990). Christianity and race in America from colonial era to the twentieth century. New York: Knopf.
76.
Woodruff, C.R. ( 1908). The National Municipal League. Proceedings of the American Political Science Association, 5, 131-148.
77.
Woodson, C.G. ( 1990). The history of the Negro church. Washington, DC: Associated.
