This article highlights the contributions of African Americans to the field of psychology with a focus on the struggles of early African American psychologists, the rise of Afrocentrism, and recent theoretical models developed by African American psychologists. The conclusion of this work is that psychology is much richer because of the contributions of African American psychologists.
Adebimpe, V. R., Gigandet, J., & Harris, E. (1979). MMPI diagnosis of Black psychiatric patients. American Journal of Psychiatry, 136, 85-87.
2.
Allen, B. A., & Boykin, A. W. (1991). The influence of contextual factors on Afro-American and Euro-American children’s performance: Effects of movement opportunity and music. International Journal of Psychology, 26, 373-387.
3.
Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
4.
Asante, M. K. (1980). Afrocentricity, the theory of social change. Buffalo, NY: Amulefi Publishing.
5.
Asante, M. K. (1987). The Afrocentric idea. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
6.
Asante, M. K., & Asante, K. W. (1985). African culture: The rhythms of unity. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
7.
Banks, J. A. (1988). Ethnicity, class, cognitive and motivational styles: Research and teaching implications. Journal of Negro Education, 57, 452-467.
8.
Benjamin, L. T., Jr., & Crouse, E. M. (2002). The American Psychological Association’s response to Brown v. Board of Education: The case of Kenneth B. Clark. American Psychologist, 57, 38-50.
9.
Bishop, D.W. (1977). Plessy v. Ferguson: A reinterpretation. Journal of Negro History, 62, 125-133.
10.
Black, H. K. (1999). Life as gift: Spiritual narratives of elderly African-American women living in poverty. Journal of Aging Studies, 13, 441-455.
11.
Blascovich, J., Spencer, S. J., Quinn, D., & Steele, C. (2001). African Americans and high blood pressure: The role of stereotype threat. Psychological Science, 12, 225-229.
12.
Boone, J. A., & Adesso, V. J. (1974). Racial differences on a Black intelligence test. Journal of Negro Education, 43, 429-436.
13.
Boykin, A. W. (1977).On the role of context in the standardized test performance of minority group children. Cornell Journal of Social Relations, 12, 109-124.
14.
Boykin, A. W. (1978). Psychological/behavioral verve in academic/task performance: Pretheoretical considerations. Journal of Negro Education, 47, 343-354.
15.
Boykin, A. W. (1982). Task variability and the performance of Black and White schoolchildren: Vervistic explorations. Journal of Black Studies, 12, 469-485.
16.
Boykin, A. W., & Allen, B. A. (1988). Rhythmic-movement facilitation of learning in working-class Afro-American children. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 149, 335-347.
17.
Boykin, A. W., Allen, B., Davis, L. H., & Senior, A. M. (1997). Task performance of Black and White children across levels of presentation variability. Journal of Psychology, 131, 427-437.
18.
Boykin, A. W., & Cunningham, R. T. (2001). The effects of movement expressiveness in story content and learning context on the analogical reasoning performance of African American children. Journal of Negro Education, 70, 72-83.
19.
Boykin, A. W., Jagers, R. J., Ellison, C. M., & Albury, A. (1997). Communalism: Conceptualization and measurement of an Afrocultural social orientation. Journal of Black Studies, 27, 409-418.
20.
Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483 (1954)
21.
Canady, H. G. (1936). “The effect of rapport” on the IQ: A new approach to the problem of racial psychology. Journal of Negro Education, 5, 209-219.
22.
Chatters, L. M., Taylor, R. J., & Jayakody, R. (1994). Fictive kinship relations in Black extended families. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 25, 297-312.
23.
Conway, K. (1985-1986). Coping with the stress of medical problems among Black and White elderly. International Journal of Aging & Human Development, 21, 39-48.
24.
Dana, R. H. (1998). Multicultural assessment of personality and psychopathology in the United States: Still art, not yet science, and controversial. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 14, 62-70.
25.
Demo, D. H., & Hughes, M. (1990). Socialization and racial identity among Black Americans. Social Psychology Quarterly, 53, 364-374.
26.
Deutscher, M., & Chein, I. (1948). The psychological effects of enforced segregation: A survey of social science opinion. Journal of Psychology, 26, 259-287.
27.
Dill, E. M., & Boykin, A. W. (2000). The comparative influence of individual, peer tutoring, and communal learning contexts on the text recall of African American children. Journal of Black Psychology, 26, 65-78.
28.
Dressler, W. W. (1985). Extended family relationships, social support, and mental health in a southern Black community. Journal of Health & Social Behavior, 26, 39-48.
29.
DuBois, W. E. B. (1903). The souls of Black folk: Essays and sketches. Chicago: A. C. McClurg & Co.
30.
Ellison, C. G. (1993). Religious involvement and self perception among Black Americans. Social Forces, 71, 1027-1055.
31.
Ellison, C. G., & Sherkat, D. E. (1995). The “semi-involuntary institution” revisited: Regional variations in church participation among Black Americans. Social Forces, 73, 1415-1437.
32.
Ellison, C. M., & Boykin, A. W. (1994). Comparing outcomes from differential cooperative and individualistic learning methods. Social Behavior & Personality, 22, 91-103.
33.
Gibson, R. C. (1986). Older Black Americans. Generations: Journal of the American Society on Aging, 10, 35-39.
34.
Glenn, N. D., & Gotard, E. (1977). The religion of Blacks in the United States: Some recent trends and current characteristics. American Journal of Sociology, 83, 443-451.
35.
Greenfield, P. M. (1997). You can’t take it with you: Why ability assessments don’t cross cultures. American Psychologist, 52, 1115-1124.
36.
Guthrie, R. V. (1998). Even the rat was White: A historical view of psychology (2nd ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
37.
Gynther, M. D., Fowler, R. D., & Erdberg, P. (1971). False positives galore: The application of standard MMPI criteria to a rural, isolated, Negro sample. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 27, 234-237.
38.
Hale, J. E. (1993). Rejoinder to “ … myths of Black cultural learning styles” in defense of Afrocentric scholarship. School Psychology Review, 22, 558-561.
39.
Hays, P. A. (1996). Culturally responsive assessment with diverse older clients. Professional Psychology: Research & Practice, 27, 188-193.
40.
Hays, W. C., & Mindel, C. H. (1973). Extended kinship relations in Black and White families. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 35, 51-57.
41.
Helms, J. (1992). Why is there no study of cultural equivalence in standardized cognitive ability testing?American Psychologist, 47, 1083-1101.
42.
Holiday, B. G., & Holmes, A. L. (2003). A tale of challenge and change: A history and chronology of ethnic minorities in psychology in the United States. In G. B. Bernal, J. E. Trimble, A. K. Burlew, & F.T.L. Leong (Eds.), Handbook of racial and ethnic minority psychology. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
43.
Jenkins, M. D. (1948). The upper limit of ability among American Negroes. Scientific Monthly, 66, 399-401.
44.
Jenkins, M. D. (1950). Intellectually superior Negro youth: Problems and needs. Journal of Negro Education, 19, 322-332.
45.
Jenkins, M. D., & Randall, C. M. (1948). Differential characteristics of superior and unselected Negro college students. Journal of Social Psychology, 27, 187-202.
46.
Jensen, A. R. (1968). The culturally disadvantaged: Psychological and educational aspects. Educational Research, 10, 4-20.
47.
Jensen, A. R. (1969). How much can we boost IQ and scholastic achievement?Harvard Educational Review, 39, 1-23.
48.
Jensen, A. R. (1974). Kinship correlations reported by Sir Cyril Burt. Behavior Genetics, 4, 1-28.
49.
Johnson, C. L. (1999). Fictive kin among oldest old African Americans in the San Francisco Bay area. Journal of Gerontology: Social Sciences, 54B, S368-S375.
50.
Johnson, C. L., & Barer, B. M. (1990). Families and social networks among older inner-city Blacks. The Gerontologist, 30, 726-733.
51.
Johnson, C. L., & Barer, B. M. (1995). Childlessness in late life: Comparisons by race. Journal of Cross Cultural Gerontology, 9, 289-306.
52.
Kamin, L. J. (1974). The science and politics of IQ. London: Wiley.
53.
Martineau, W. H. (1977). In formal social ties among urban Black Americans: Some new data and a review of the problem. Journal of Black Studies, 8, 83-104.
54.
Mattis, J. S. (2002). Religion and spirituality in the meaning-makingand coping experiences of African American women: A qualitative analysis. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 26, 309-321.
55.
Mbiti, J. S. (1970). African religions and philosophy. New York: Doubleday.
56.
McAdoo, H. P. (1978). Factors related to stability in upwardly mobile Black families. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 40, 761-776.
57.
McAdoo, H. (1980). Black mothers and the extended family support networks. In L.F. Rodgers-Rose (Ed.), The Black Woman. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
58.
Nelson, T. D. (2002). Ageism: Stereotyping and prejudice against older persons. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
59.
Nikelly, A. G. (1992). Can DSMIII-R be used in the diagnosis of non-Western patients?International Journal of Mental Health, 21, 3-22.
60.
Nobles, W. W. (1974). African root and American fruit: The Black family. Journal of Social and Behavioral Sciences, 20, 54-62.
61.
Nobles, W. W. (1991). African philosophy: Foundations of Black psychology. In R. L. Jones (Ed.), Black psychology (3rd ed.). Berkeley, CA: Cobb & Henry.
62.
Perez-Arce, P. (1999). The influence of culture on cognition. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 14, 581-592.
63.
Persell, C. H. (1981). Genetic and cultural deficit theories: Two sides of the same racist coin. Journal of Black Studies, 12, 19-37.
64.
Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537 (1896)
65.
Postmes, T., & Branscombe, N. R. (2002). Influence of long-term racial environmental composition on subjective well-being of African Americans. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 83, 735-751.
66.
Ramirez, M., & Castaneda, A. (1974). Cultural democracy, bicognitive development, and education. New York: Academic Press.
67.
Ramirez, M., & Price-Williams, O. (1974). Cognitive styles of children in three ethnic groups in the United States. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 5, 212-219.
68.
Rodekohr, R. K., & Haynes, W. O. (2001). Differentiating dialect from disorder: A comparison of two processing tasks and a standardized language test. Journal of Communication Disorders, 34, 255-272.
69.
Rodgers, H. R., Jr., & Bullock, C. S., III. (1974). School desegregation: Successes and failures. Journal of Negro Education, 43, 139-154.
70.
Russo, C. J., Harris, J. H., III, & Sandige, R. F. (1994). Legal retrospectives: Brown v. Board of Education at 40. A commemorative issue dedicated to the late Thurgood Marshall. Journal of Negro Education, 63, 297-309.
71.
Sawyer, T. F. (2000). Francis Cecil Sumner: His views and influence on African American higher education. History of Psychology, 3, 122-141.
72.
Scott, R. R., & Shaw, M. E. (1985). Black and White performancein graduateschool and policy implications of the use of Graduate Record Examination scores in admissions. Journal of Negro Education, 54, 14-23.
73.
Singleton, R. (1975). The black child and equity in school finance: Analysis and alternatives. Journal of Negro Education, 44, 271-307.
74.
Solomon, A. (1992). Clinical diagnosis among diverse populations:A multicultural perspective. Families in Society, 73, 371-377.
75.
Spencer, S. J., Steele, C. M., & Quinn, D. M. (1999). Stereotype threat and women’s math performance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35, 4-28.
76.
Steele, C. M. (1997). A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance. American Psychologist, 52, 613-629.
77.
Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J. (1995). Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 69, 797-811.
78.
St. George, A., & McNamara, P. H. (1984). Religion, race, and psychological well-being. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 23, 351-363.
79.
Taylor, R. J., & Chatters, L. M. (1986). Church-based informal support among elderly Blacks. The Gerontologist, 26, 637-642.
80.
Taylor, R. J., Chatters, L. M., & Mays, V. (1988). Parents, children, siblings, in-laws, and non-kin as sources of emergency assistance to Black Americans. Family Relations, 37, 298-304.
81.
Taylor, R. J., Chatters, L. M., Tucker, M. B., & Lewis, E. (1990). Developments in research on Black families: A decadereview. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 52, 993-1014.
82.
Taylor, R. J., Thornton, M. C., & Chatters, L. M. (1987). Black Americans’ perceptions of the sociohistorical role of the church. Journal of Black Studies, 18, 123-138.
83.
Tucker, W. H. (1994). Fact andfictionin the discovery of Sir Cyril Burt’s flaws. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 30, 335-347.
84.
Tucker, W. H. (1994). The science and politics of racial research. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
85.
Vandiver, B. J., Cross, W. E., Worrell, F. C., & Fhagen-Smith, P. E. (2002). Validating the cross racial identity scale. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 49, 71-85.
86.
Verharen, C. C. (1995). Afrocentrism and acentrism: A marriage of science and philosophy. Journal of Black Studies, 26, 62-76.
87.
Veroff, J., Douvan, E., & Kulka, R. A. (1981). The inner American: A self-portrait from 1957 to 1976. New York: Basic Books.
88.
Walsh, M., Hickey, C., & Duffy, J. (1999). Influence of item content and stereotype situation on gender differences in mathematical problem solving. Sex Roles, 41, 219-240.
89.
Whaley, A. L. (2001). Cultural mistrust: An important psychological construct for diagnosis and treatment of African Americans. Professional Psychology: Research & Practice, 32, 555-562.
90.
Whaley, A. L. (2002). Confluent paranoia in African American psychiatric patients: An empirical study of Ridley’s typology. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 568-577.
91.
Williams, R. L. (1973). Psychology, education, and the Black American. Journal of Black Studies, 4, 29-39.
92.
Williams, R. L. (1974). A history of the Association of Black Psychologists: Early formation and development. Journal of Black Psychology, 9-24.
93.
Williams, R. L., & Rivers, L. W. (1972). Cognitive development in Black children: Non-standard English or different strokes?St. Louis, MO: Washington University, Black Studies Program.
94.
Williams, R. L., & Rivers, L. W. (1975). The effects of language on the test performance of Black children. In R. L. Williams (Ed.), Ebonics: The true language of Black folks. St. Louis, MO: Institute of Black Studies.
95.
Williamson-Ige, D. K. (1984). Approaches to Black language studies: A cultural critique. Journal of Black Studies, 15, 17-29.
96.
Willmott, P. (1998). Integrity in social science—The upshot of a scandal. International Social Science Journal, 50, 371-374.
97.
Witkin, H. A., Dyk, R. B., Fattuson, H. F., Goodenough, D. R., & Karp, S. A. (1962). Psychological differentiation: Studies of development. Oxford, England: Wiley.
98.
Witkin, H. A., & Goodenough, D. R. (1981). Cognitive styles: Essence and origins. New York: International Universities Press.
99.
Wober, M. (1971). Race and intelligence. Transition, 40, 16-26.