The implementation of a peace agreement following a civil war is one of the most critical and uncertain processes of any post-war period. Many argue that promises of extensive power sharing arrangements in future governments and international intervention help advance the implementation of a peace process. While not doubting the importance of these factors, this paper argues that they do not sufficiently account for the incremental process of an implementation. Through an analysis of the numerous peace agreements of Liberia’s first civil war, from 1989-1996, this paper presents the theory that the implementation of a peace agreement will advance if the level of vulnerability during the implementation period is equally balanced among the faction leaders. In other words, given that the concessions offered in a peace agreement will bring some change in military, economic, or political vulnerability among the factions, the implementation process advances when the faction leaders feel mutually vulnerable. Liberia’s nearly decade-long conflict, interspersed with periods of fragile peace, provides an opportunity to observe the effects of changes in military and political vulnerability on the implementation process.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Aboagye, Festus B. (Lt. Col.). 1999. ECOMOG: A Sub-regional Experience in Conflict Resolution, Management, and Peacekeeping in Liberia. Accra, Ghana: Sedco Enterprise .
2.
Adebajo, Adekeye . 2002a. Building Peace in West Africa: Liberia, Sierra Leone and Guinea-Bissau, Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers .
3.
Adebajo, Adekeye . 2002b. Liberia’s Civil War: Nigeria, ECOMOG, and Regional Security in West Africa, Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers .
4.
Africa Confidential. 1995a. “Trekking to Monrovia,”21 July, pp. 4-5 .
5.
Africa Confidential. 1995b. “Pushing Abacha,”25 August, pp. 1-3 .
6.
Africa Confidential. 1995c. “Peace in Sight,”8 September, p. 8 .
7.
Africa Confidential. 1996a. “Out of Control,”10 May, pp. 1-3 .
8.
Africa Confidential. 1996b. “Keeping What Peace?”16 February, pp. 1-2 .
9.
Africa Confidential. 1997. “Blood Under the Bridge,”1 August, pp. 2-3 .
10.
Africa Network Program . 1992. “ECOMOG Field Commander on Forces Deployment” (text). London BBC World Service in English, 0630 GMT, 7 Jan. FBIS Daily Reports - West Africa. (GPO Microfiche; FBIS-AFR-92-005; 8 January 1992, p. 25-26).
11.
Agence France Presse. 1997“New Polling date gives breathing space to war-ravaged Liberia,”May 22. Retrieved from LEXIS-NEXIS Academic Universe, March 4, 2002.
12.
Alao, Abiodun . 1998. The Burden of Collective Goodwill: The International Involvement in the Liberian Civil War. Ashgate: Brookefield, USA .
13.
Alao, Abiodun , John Mackinlay , and Funmi Olonisakin . 1999. Peacekeepers, Politicians, and Warlords: The Liberian Peace Process. New York: United Nations University Press .
14.
Associated Press. 1993. “Warring Sides Nominate Interim Government,”August 16. Online. Retrieved from LEXIS-NEXIS Academic Universe, February 19, 2001.
15.
Axelrod, Robert M.1993. The Evolution of Cooperation. New York: Penguin Books .
16.
Bates, Robert H.1991. “The Economics of Transitions to Democracy.”PS: Political Science & Politics24(1)(March): 24-27 .
17.
BBC Summary of World Broadcasts. 1995. “ULIMO Faction Leader Says he is Committed to the Peace Process.”November 20. Retrieved from LEXIS-NEXIS® Academic Universe February 20, 2002.
18.
Carter Center . n.d. Observing the 1997 Special Elections Process in Liberia. Atlanta, GA: The Carter Center .
19.
Cousens, Elizabeth M. and Chetan Kumar . 2001. Peacebuilding as Politics: Cultivating Peace in Fragile Societies. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publications .
20.
de Soto, Alvaro and Graciana del Castillo . 1994. “Obstacles to Peacebuilding.”Foreign Policy94(Spring): 69-83 .
21.
Dorbor, James . 1991. “Charles Taylor Denies Plans to Disarm Forces” (text). Paris AFP in English, 1351 GMT, 8 Jul. FBIS Daily Report - West Africa. (GPO microfiche; FBIS-AFR-90-131, 9 July 1991; p. 27-28).
22.
Deutsche Presse-Agentur. 1994. “Liberia factions hold secret talks in Ghana.”November 6. Retrieved from LEXIS-NEXIS Academic Universe, February 19, 2001.
23.
Deutsche Presse-Agentur. 1996a. “Liberian militia clash.”March 8. Retrieved from LEXIS-NEXIS Academic Universe, February 20, 2002.
24.
Deutsche Presse-Agentur. 1996b. “Johnson Dismissed, Ordered Arrested.” March 22. Retrieved from LEXIS-NEXIS Academic Universe, February 20, 2002.
25.
Deutsche Presse-Agentur. 1996c. “Heavy fighting continues in Monrovia as forces surround Johnson.”6 April. Retrieved from LEXIS-NEXIS Academic Universe, February 20, 2002.
26.
Deutsche Presse-Agentur. 1996d. “Liberian faction leader pledges to take disarmament lead.”August 2. Retrieved from LEXIS-NEXIS Academic Universe, March 4, 2002.
27.
Dunn, Elwood D.1998. “Liberia’s Internal Responses to ECOMOG’s Interventionist Efforts.” In Peacekeeping in Africa: ECOMOG in Liberia, edited by Karl P. Magyar and Earl Conteh-Morgan . New York, NY: St. Martin’s Press .
28.
Ellis, Stephen . 1999. The Mask of Anarchy: The Destruction of Liberia and the Religious Dimension of an African Civil War. London: Hurst and Company .
29.
Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS) . 1990a. “Taylor Names First Ministers in Government” (text). Paris AFP in English, 1708 GMT, 28 Jul. FBIS Daily Reports-West Africa, 30 July 1990. (GPO microfiche; FBIS-AFR-90-146; p. 37).
30.
Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS)1991a. “Amos Sawyer Reelected Interim President” (text). Paris AFP in English 2141 GMT 19 Apr. FBIS Daily Reports-West Africa. (GPO Microfiche; FBISAFR-91-077; 22 April, pp. 13-14).
31.
Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS) . 1991b. “ECOMOG Commander on Disarmament, Encampment” (text). Monrovia Radio ELBC in English, 0900 GMT, 9 Dec. FBIS Daily Reports - West Africa (GPO Microfiche; FBIS -AFR-91-237, 10 December 1991, p. 27).
32.
Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS) . 1992a. “ECOMOG Deploys Troops Into NPFL Territory” (text). Paris AFP in French, 1402 GMT, 4 Jan. Translation by the Foreign Broadcast Information Service. FBIS Daily Reports - West Africa. (GPO Microfische; FBIS-AFR-92-003; 6 January 1992, p. 28-29).
33.
Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS) . 1992b.“Taylor, Prince Johnson Comment on New Currency,” Paris AFP in English, 1204 GMT, 7 Jan. FBIS Daily Reports-West Africa, 8 January 1992. (GPO microfiche, FBIS-AFR-92-005; p. 26).
34.
Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS) . 1993a. “NPFL Not to Disarm Until Transition Bodies Set Up” (text). Paris AFP in English, 1735 GMT, 31 Dec. FBIS Daily Report-West Africa (GPO Microfiche; FBIS-AFR-94-001; 3 January 1994, p. 27-28).
35.
Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS) . 1993b. “Taylor Discusses Cotonou Accord, Disarmament” (text). Gbarnga Radio ELBC in English, 1900 GMT, 19 Dec. FBIS Daily Report-West Africa (GPO Microfiche; FBIS-AFR-93-243; 21 December 1993, 26).
36.
Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS) . 1994a. “Faction Coalition Reportedly ‘Completely Controls Gbarnga” (text). Paris, AFP in English, 0209 GMT 23 Sep. FBIS Daily Report-West Africa (Internet version; November 12, 1995; [Online Database] February 9, 2002).
37.
Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS) . 1994b. “Factions fail to form Government; 30,000 flee fighting” (excerpts). Paris, AFP in English, 1632 GMT, 26 Sep. FBIS Daily Reports-West Africa (Internet version; November 12, 1995; [Online Database] February 6, 2002).
38.
Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS) . 1994c. “Politicians, Professionals, Media Reject Peace Pact” (excerpt). Paris AFP in English, 1309 GMT, 13 Sep. FBIS Daily Report-West Africa. (Internet edition; November 12, 1995; [Online Database]: February 9, 2002).
39.
Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS) . 1994d. “Renewed Fighting Reported Between NPFL, Peace Council” (text). Paris AFP in English, 1544 GMT, 9 Aug. FBIS Daily Report-West Africa (Online; November 13, 1995; Accessed on February 9, 2002).
40.
Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS) . 1994e. “Taylor Names 5 Supporters to Transitional Cabinet” (text). Paris AFP in English, 2042 GMT, 28 Feb. FBIS Daily Report-West Africa (GPO Microfiche; FBIS-AFR-94-040, 1 March 1994; p. 26).
41.
Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS) . 1994f. “UN Mission Chief Says Fewer Factions Need Disarming” (text). Paris AFP in English, 1512 GMT, 8 Mar. FBIS Daily Report-West Africa (GPO Microfiche; FBIS-AFR-94-046; 9 March 1994, p. 22-23).
42.
Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS) . 1995a. “Negotiators React” (text). Accra Ghana Broadcasting Corporation Radio Network in English, 2000 GMT, 31 Jan. FBIS Daily Report-West Africa (Internet version; November 19, 1995; [Online Database] February 9, 2002).
43.
Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS) . 1995b. “Peace Talks Deadlock, To Continue in Monrovia” (text). Accra, Ghana Broadcasting Corporation Radio Network in English, 2000 GMT, 12 Jan. FBIS Daily Report-West Africa (Internet version; November 19, 1995; [Online Database] February 9, 2002).
44.
Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS) . 1995c. “Taylor Denies Accord on Broadened Council” (excerpt). Paris AFP in English, 1819 GMT, 27 Jan. FBIS Daily Report-West Africa; (Internet version; November 19, 1995; [Online Database] February 9, 2002).
45.
Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS) . 1995d. “Withdraws from New Council” (text). Paris AFP in English, 1644 GMT 30 Jan. FBIS Daily Report-West Africa (Internet version; FBIS-AFR-95-019; November 19, 1995, [Online Database] February 9, 2002).
46.
Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS) . 1996. “Peace Council’s Boley Gives Reasons for Slow Disarmament” (text). Paris AFP in English, 1003 GMT 12 Dec. FBIS Daily Report-West Africa. (FBISAFR-97-022; Internet posting: February 4, 1997); [Online Database]: February 21, 2002.
47.
Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS) . 1997a. “Another Warlord Orders His Faction to Disband” (text). Paris AFP in English, 1739 GMT, 24 Jan. FBIS Daily-West Africa (FBIS -AFR-97-017; Internet version, January 28, 1997; [Online Database] on February 21, 2002).
48.
Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS) . 1997b. “Council Holds ‘First’ Meeting Since Assassination Attempt” (text) Paris AFP in English, 1049 GMT, 17 Jan. FBIS Daily Report-West Africa (Internet version; FBIS -AFR-91-012, January 21, 1997. [Online Database] February 21,2002).
49.
Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS) . 1997c. “ECOMOG Chief Malu Interviewed on Disarmament Process” (excerpt) Paris AFP in English, 1139 GMT, 28 Jan. FBIS Daily Report-West Africa (FBIS -AFR-97-018; Internet posting: January 29, 1997); [Online Database]: February 22, 2002.
50.
Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS) . 1997d. “Faction Head Koromah Under House Arrest After Arms Seizure” (text). Paris AFP in English, 1331 GMT, 7 Mar. FBIS Daily Report-West Africa (FBISAFR-97-066; Internet version, March 11, 1997; [Online Database] on February 21, 2002).
51.
Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS) . 1997e. “Foreign Minister says Liberian Disarmament Pace too ‘slow’” (text). Paris AFP in English, 1707 GMT, 18 Jan. FBIS Daily Report-West Africa (FBISAFR-91-013, Internet posting: January 22, 1997); [Online Database]: February 21, 2002.
52.
Focus on Africa . 1994a. “Further on ULIMO Infighting” (text). London BBC World Service in English, 1705 GMT, 28 Mar. FBIS Daily Report-West Africa (GPO-FBIS-AFR-94-060; 29 March 1994; pp. 23-24).
53.
Focus on Africa . 1994b. “ULIMO Rift Deepens; Forces Engage in Shoot-Out”, (text). London BBC World Service in English, 1705 GMT, 5 Mar. FBIS Daily Report - West Africa (GPO Microfiche; FBIS-AFR-94-044; 7 March 1994, p.26).
54.
Fudenberg, Drew and Jean Tirole . 1991. Game Theory. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press .
55.
Gershoni, Yekutiel . 1997. “War without End and an End to A War: the Prolonged Wars in Liberia and Sierra Leone.”African Studies Review40(3): 55-76 .
56.
Hampson, Fen Olser . 1996. Nurturing Peace: Why Peace Settlements Succeed or Fail. Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press .
57.
Hartzell, Caroline A.1999. “Explaining the Stability of Negotiated Settlements to Intrastate Wars.”The Journal of Conflict Resolution43(1)(February): 3-22 .
58.
Hartzell, Caroline A. , Mathew Hoddie , and Donald Rothchild . 2001. “Stabilizing the Peace After Civil War: An Investigation of Some Key Variables.”International Organization55(1): 183-208 .
59.
Hinneh, Klon . 1992. “Peacekeepers to Deploy in Liberia, Taylor Backs Down.” April 20. Retrieved from LEXIS-NEXIS Academic Universe, February 19, 2001.
60.
Horowitz, Donald L.1985. Ethnic Groups in Conflict, University of California Press: Berkeley, CA .
61.
Howe, Herbert . 1996/97. “Lessons of Liberia: ECOMOG and Regional Peacekeeping.”International Security21(3)(Winter): 145-176 .
62.
Huband, Mark . 1990. “Liberian rebel leader forced to sign cease-fire.” November 28. Retrieved from LEXIS-NEXIS Academic Universe, February 18, 2001.
63.
Huband, Mark . 1998. The Liberian Civil War. Portland, OR: Frank Cass Publishers .
64.
Kreps, David M.1990. A Course in Microeconomic Theory. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press .
65.
Lake, David A. and Donald Rothchild . 1996. “Containing Fear: The Origins and Management of Ethnic Conflict.”International Security21(2): 41-75 .
66.
Licklider, Roy . 1995. “The Consequences of Negotiated Settlements in Civil Wars, 1945-1993.”American Political Science Review89(3): 681-690 .
67.
Lijphart, Arend . 1977. Democracy in Plural Societies: A Comparative Exploration. New Haven: Yale University Press .
68.
Lijphart, Arend . 1990. “The Power-Sharing Approach.” In Conflict and Peacemaking in Multiethnic Societies, edited by Joseph Montville . Lexington, MA: Lexington Books .
69.
Lyons, Terrence . 1999. Voting for Peace: Postconflict Elections in Liberia. Washington, DC: Brookings Institutions Press .
70.
Mas-Colell, Andreu , Michael D. Whinston , and Jerry R. Green . 1995. Microeconomic Theory. New York: Oxford University Press .
71.
Noble, Kenneth B.1992. “In Liberia’s Illusory Peace, Rebel Leader Rules Empire of His Own Design.”The New York TimesApril 14. Retrieved from LEXIS-NEXIS Academic Universe, February 19, 2001.
72.
Nyenati, Allison . 1995. “Liberian Transitional Government in Crisis.” December 11. Retrieved from LEXIS-NEXIS Academic Universe, February 20, 2002.
73.
Olonisakin, Funmi . 2000. Reinventing Peacekeeping in Africa: Conceptual and Legal Issues in ECOMOG Operations. Boston: Kluwer Law International .
74.
Outram, Quentin . 1997. “Cruel Wars and Safe Havens: Humanitarian Aid in Liberia, 1989-1996.”Disasters21(3): 189-205 .
75.
Reno, William . 1998. Warlord Politics and African States, Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers .
76.
Salanié, Bernard . 1997. The Economics of Contracts: A Primer. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press .
77.
Schelling, Thomas . 1980. The Strategy of Conflict. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press .
78.
Sesay, Max Ahmadu . 1996a. “Bringing Peace to Liberia.” In Accord: An International Review of Peace Initiatives, The Liberian Peace Process: 1990-1996, edited by Jeremy Armon and Andy Carl . London: Conciliation Resources .
79.
Sesay, Max Ahmadu . 1996b. “Politics and Society in Post-War Liberia”The Journal of African Studies34(3): 395-420 .
80.
Sisk, Timothy D.1996. Power sharing and International Mediation in Ethnic Conflict. Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press .
81.
Snyder, Jack and Robert Jervis . 1999. “Civil War and the Security Dilemma.” In Civil Wars, Insecurity, and Intervention, edited by Barbara F. Walter and Jack Snyder . New York: Columbia University Press .
82.
Stedman, Stephen John , Donald Rothchild , and Elizabeth Cousens . 2002. Ending Civil Wars: The Implementation of Peace Agreements. Boulder: Lynne Rienner .
83.
Stedman, Stephen John . 1997. “Spoiler Problems in Peace Process.”International Security22(2): 5-53 .
84.
Varian, Hal R.1992. Microeconomic Analysis. 3d ed.New York: W.W. Norton & Company .
85.
Vogt, Margaret A.1996. “The Involvement of ECOWAS in Liberia’s Peace-Keeping.” In Peace Keeping as a Security Strategy in Africa: Chad and Liberia as Case Studies, volume 1, edited by M. A. Vogt and L. S. Aminu . Enugu, Nigeria: Fourth Dimension Publishing Co. ltd.
86.
Walter, Barbara F.1997. “The Critical Barrier to Civil War Settlement.”International Organization51(3): 335-364 .
87.
Weller, Mark . 1994a. “Report: Interim President on Policy for Disarming Combatants and Rehabilitating Them.” 26 June 1992. Radio ELBC, Monrovia, 26 June 1992, reproduced as document 168 in Regional Peace-Keeping and International Enforcement: The Liberian Conflict, Cambridge International Documents Series, vol 6, ed. Mark Weller . Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press , 1994:200-201.
88.
Weller, Mark . 1994b. “Economic Community of West African States. Fifteenth Session of theAuthority of Heads of State and Government, Dakar, 27-29 July 1992, Decision A/DEC.8/7/92 Relating to Sanctions Against Charles Taylor and the National Patriotic Front of Liberia.” Reproduced as document 172 in Regional Peace-Keeping and International Enforcement: The Liberian Conflict, Cambridge International Documents Series, vol 6, ed. Mark Weller . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press , 1994: 200-206.
89.
Weller, Mark . 1994c. “Peace talks on Liberia.” Reproduced as documents 221-235 in Regional Peace-Keeping and International Enforcement: The Liberian Conflict. Cambridge International Documents Series, vol 6, ed. Mark Weller . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press , 1994:306-338
90.
Weingast, Barry R. and William J. Marshall . 1988. “The Industrial Organization of Congress: or, Why Legislatures, Like Firms, Are Not Organized as Markets.”Journal of Political Economy96: 132-163 .
91.
Williamson, Oliver E.1985. The Economic Institutions of Capitalism: Firms, Markets, Relational Contracting. New York: The Free Press .
92.
Wippman, David . 1998. “Practical and Legal Constraints on Internal Power Sharing,” In International Law and Ethnic Conflict, edited by David Wippman . Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press .
93.
United Nations . 1997. United Nations and the Situation in Liberia, Department of Public Information, United Nations: New York .
94.
UN General Assembly . 1992. “Special Economic and Disaster Relief Assistance: Special Programmes of Economic Assistance, Assistance for the rehabilitation and reconstruction of Liberia, Report of the Secretary General.” (A/47/528). 16 October (Readex Microprint).
95.
UN General Assembly. 1994. 49th session, Agenda item 37(b), Strengthening of the Coordination of Humanitarian and Disaster Relief Assistance of the United Nations, Including Special Economic Assistance: Special Economic Assistance to Individual Countries or regions. “Assistance for the rehabilitation and reconstruction of Liberia: Report of the Secretary General”(A/49/466). 7 October (Readex Microprint).
96.
UN Security Council. 1992a. “Letter dated 30 October 1992 from the Permanent Representative of Benin to the United Nations Addressed to the President of the Security Council.” (S/24811). 16 November (Readex Microprint).
97.
UN Security Council. 1992b. “Letter dated 13 November 1992 from the Permanent Representative of Benin to the United Nations Addressed to the President of the Security Council.” (S/24812, Annex) 16 November. (Readex Microprint).
98.
UN Security Council. 1992c. “Letter dated 23 November 1992 from the President of the Security Council Addressed to the Secretary-General.” (S/24835). 23 November. (Readex Microprint).
99.
UN Security Council . 1993a. “Report of the Secretary-General on the Question of Liberia.” (S/25402), 12 March (Readex Microprint).
100.
UN Security Council . 1993b. “Further Report of the Secretary General on Liberia.” (S/26200). 2 August. (Readex Microprint).
101.
UN Security Council . 1993c. “Report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Observer Mission in Liberia.” (S/26868) 13 December. (Readex Microprint).
102.
UN Security Council . 1993d. 3281st meeting, “Resolution 866 (1992) [On the establishment of UNOMIL].” (S/RES/866). 22 September. (Readex Microprint).
103.
UN Security Council . 1994a. “Second Progress Report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Observer Mission in Liberia.” (S/1994/168, Annex), 14 February. (Readex Microprint).
104.
UN Security Council. 1994b. “Letter dated 16 February 1994 from the Permanent Representative of Liberia to the United Nations Addressed to the Secretary-General.” (S/1994/187, Annex). 17 February. (Readex Microprint).
105.
UN Security Council. 1994c. “Letter dated 8 March 1994 from the Permanent Representative of Liberia to the United Nations Addressed to the Secretary-General.” (S/1994/279). 9 March. (Readex Microprint).
106.
UN Security Council . 1994d. “Third Progress Report of the Secretary General on the United Nations Observer Mission in Liberia.” (S/1994/463). 18 April. (Readex Microprint).
107.
UN Security Council . 1994e. “Fourth Progress Report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Observer Mission in Liberia.” (S/1994/588), 18 May. (Readex Microprint).
108.
UN Security Council. 1994f. “Letter dated 18 May 1994 from the Permanent Representative of Liberia to the United Nations Addressed to the Secretary-General.” (S/1994/594, Annex), 19 May. (Readex Microprint).
109.
UN Security Council . 1994g. “Fifth Progress Report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Observer Mission in Liberia.” (S/1994/760). 24 June. (Readex Microprint).
110.
UN Security Council . 3404th meeting of the Security Council, “Statement by the President of the Security Council.” (S/PRST/1994/33), 13 July. (Readex Microprint).
111.
UN Security Council . 1994i. “Sixth Progress Report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Observer Mission in Liberia.” (S/1994/1006). 26 August, (Readex Microprint).
112.
UN Security Council . 1994j. “Seventh Progress Report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Observer Mission in Liberia.” (S/1994/1167). 14 October. (Readex Microprint).
113.
UN Security Council . 1995a. 3527th meeting, “Resolution 985 (1995) [On the extension of the mandate of the UNOMIL].”13 April (S/RES/985). [Online Database] <www.un.org/Docs/scres/1995/9501807e.htm> (cited February 12, 2001).
114.
UN Security Council. 1995b. “Letter dated 30 August 1995 from the Permanent Representative of Ghana to the United Nations Addressed to the Secretary General.” (S/1995/756). 30 August. (Readex Microprint).
115.
UN Security Council . 1995c. “Twelfth Progress Report of the Secretary-General on the Untied Nations Observer Mission in Liberia.” (S/1995/781). 9 September. [Online Database] <gopher://gopher.undp.org/00/uncurr/sgrep/95_09/781> (cited February 15,2001).
116.
UN Security Council . 1995d. “Thirteenth Progress Report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Observer Mission in Liberia.” (S/1995/881), 23 October. [Online Database] <gopher://gopher.undp.org/00/uncurr/sgrep/95_10/881> (cited February 15, 2002).
117.
UN Security Council . 1995e. “Fourteenth Progress Report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Observer Mission in Liberia.” (S/1995/1042) 18 December. [Online Database] <gopher://gopher.undp.org/00/uncurr/sgrep/95_12/1042> (cited February 15, 2001).
118.
UN Security Council . 1996a. “Eighteenth Progress Report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Observer Mission in Liberia.” (S/1996/684). 22 August,. (Readex Microprint).
119.
UN Security Council . 1996b. “Twentieth Progress Report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Observer Mission in Liberia.” (S/1996/962) 19 November. (Readex Microprint).
120.
UN Security Council . 1997a. “Twenty-first Progress Report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Observer Mission in Liberia.” (S/1997/90) 29 January. (Readex Microprint).
121.
UN Security Council . 1997b. “Twenty-second Progress Report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Observer Mission in Liberia.” (S/1997/237). 19 March. (Readex Microprint).
122.
Gordon-Somers, Trevor . 2001. Interviewed by author. New York , August 16.
123.
Jonah, James . 2002. Phone Interview . Interviewed by author. February 12.
124.
Abuja - I UN Security Council. Letter dated 25 August 1995 from the Permanent Representative of Nigeria to the United Nations Addressed to the President of the Security Council. (S/1995/742, Annex), 28 August. (Readex Microprint).
125.
Abuja-II“Supplement to the Abuja Accord.” Reproduced in Accord: An International Review of Peace Initiatives - The Liberian Peace Process: 1990-1996, edited by Jeremy Armon and Andy Carl . London: Conciliation Resources , 1999.
126.
Accra Agreements UN Security Council. Letter dated 5 January 1995 from the Permanent Representative of Ghana to the United Nations Addressed to the President of the Security Council. (S/1995/7, Annex I, II) 5 January. (Readex Microprint).
127.
Akosombo Agreement UN Security Council. Letter dated 14 October 1994 from the Permanent Representative of Ghana to the United Nations Addressed to the President of the Security Council. (S/1994/1174, Annex) 16 October. (Readex Microprint).
128.
reproduced in Official Journal of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), English Edition 21(1992): 14-15 .
129.
reproduced in Official Journal of the Economic Community of African States (ECOWAS) English Edition 21(1992): 6-8 .
130.
as reproduced in Official Journal of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), English Edition 21(1992): 8 .
131.
reproduced in Official Journal of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), English Edition 21(1992): 29-32 .
132.
as reproduced in Official Journal of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), English Edition 21(1992): 10-11 .
133.
reproduced as document 107 in Regional Peace-Keeping and International Enforcement: The Liberian Conflict, Cambridge International Documents Series, vol 6, edited by Mark Weller . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press , 1994:122.
134.
Cotonou Accord UN Security Council. Letter dated 6 August 1993 from the Charge D’Affaires A.I. of the Permanent Mission of Benin to the United Nations Addressed to the Secretary-General. (S/26272, Annex) 9 August 1993. [Online Database: Optical Disk System], March 12, 2002.
135.
reproduced as document 156 in Regional Peace-Keeping and International Enforcement: The Liberian Conflict, Cambridge International Documents Series, vol 6, edited by Mark Weller . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press , 1994: 189-191.
136.
reproduced in Official Journal of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), English Edition 21(1992): 16-22 .
137.
reproduced in Official Journal of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), English Edition 19: 22-23 .
138.
reproduced in Official Journal of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), English Edition 19: 23 .
139.
reproduced in Official Journal of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), English edition 19: 24-25 .
140.
Yamoussoukro(IV) Agreement UN Security Council. Letter dated 17 November 1992 from the Permanent Representative of Benin to the United Nations Addressed to the President of the Security Council. (S/24815, Annex) 17 November 1992. (Readex Microprint).
