Group therapy has traditionally been viewed as more an art than a science. This paper suggests that the field is reaching a level of empirical sophistication which permits the development of clinical models from empirical data. Pretherapy -training, cohesion, and modeling are suggested as significant parameters of effective group treatment. The evidence defining the properties and effects of those variables is reviewed and their theoretical and practical implications are discussed.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Asch, S. E.The doctrine of suggestion, prestige, and imitation in social psychology. Psychological Review, 1948, 55, 250-276.
2.
Baer, D. M., Peterson, R. F., & Sherman, J. A.The development of imitation by reinforcing behavioral similarity to a model. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 1967, 10, 405-416.
3.
Bandura, A.Principles of behavior modification. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1969.
4.
Bandura, A.Vicarious and self-reinforcement processes. In R. Glassner (Ed.), The nature of reinforcement. Columbus: Merrill, 1970.
5.
Bandura, A., & Barab, P. G. Conditions governing "generalized imitation." Unpublished manuscript, Stanford University, 1969.
6.
Bandura, A., & Huston, A. C.Identification as a process of incidental learning. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1961, 63, 311-318.
7.
Bandura, A., & Kupers, C. J.Transmission of patterns of self-reinforcement through modeling. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1964, 69, 1-9.
8.
Bandura, A., & Menlove, F.Factors determining vicarious extinction of avoidance behavior through symbolic modeling. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1968, 8, 99-108.
9.
Bandura, A., & Mischel, W.Modification of self-imposed delay of reward through exposure to live and symbolic models. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1965, 2, 698-705.
10.
Bandura, A., Blanchard, E. B., & Ritter, B.The relative efficacy of desensitization and modeling approaches for inducing behavioral, affective, and attitudinal changes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1969, 13, 173-199.
11.
Bandura, A., Grusec, J. E., & Menlove, F. L.Observational learning as a function of symbolization and incentive set. Child Development, 1966, 37, 499-506.
12.
Bandura, A., Ross, D., Sc Ross, S.Imitation of film-mediated aggressive models. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1963, 66, 3-11.
13.
Baron, A. The effectiveness of teaching a psychomotor task via teacher prepared videotape recording. Unpublished dissertation, University of Maryland, 1970.
14.
Baum, E. E., & Felzer, S. B.Activity in intial interviews with lower class patients. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1964, 13, 345-353.
15.
Bednar, R. L.Group psychotherapy research variables. International Journal of Group Psychotherapy, 1970, 20, 146-152.
16.
Bednar, R. L., & Lawlis, G. F.Empirical research in group psychotherapy. In A. E. Bergin and S. L. Garfield (Eds.), Handbook of psychotherapy and behavior change. New York: Wiley, 1971. Pp. 812-838.
17.
Carson, R. C., & Heine, R. W.Similarity and success in therapeutic dyads. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 1962, 26, 38-42.
18.
Cook, T. E.The influence of client-counselor value similarity on change in meaning during brief counseling. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1966, 13, 77-81.
19.
Danet, B. N.Videotape playback as a therapeutic device in group psychotherapy. International Journal of Group Psychotherapy, 1969, 18.
20.
Dies, R. R., & Hess, A. K.An experimental investigation of cohesiveness in marathon and conventional group psychotherapy. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1971, 77, 258-262.
21.
Gerst, M. S. Symbolic coding operations in observational learning. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Stanford University, 1968.
22.
Goldstein, A. D., & Shipman, W. G.Patient expectancies, symptom reduction, and aspects of the initial psychotherapeutic interview. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 1961, 17, 129-133.
23.
Goldstein, A., Gassner, S., Greenburg, R., Gustin, A., Land, J., Liberman, R., & Steiner, D.The use of planted patients in group psychotherapy. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 1967, 21, 767-774.
24.
Grusec, J., & Mischel, W.Model's characteristics as determinants of social learning. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1966, 4, 211-215.
25.
Grusec, J., & Skubiski, S. L.Model nurturance, demand characteristics of the modeling experiment, and altruism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1970, 14, 352-359.
26.
Hill, J. H., Liebert, R. M., & Mott, D.Vicarious extinction of avoidance behavior through films: An initial test. Psychological Reports, 1968, 22, 192-192.
27.
Hoehn-Saric, R., Frank, J. D., Imber, S. D., Nash, E. H., Stone, A. R., & Battle, C. C.Systematic preparation of patients for psychotherapy: I. Effects on therapy behavior and outcome. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 1964, 2, 267-281.
28.
Kahn, M. H., & Rudestem, K. E.The relationship between liking and perceived self-disclosure in small groups. Journal of Psychology, 1971, 78, 81-85.
29.
Kanareff, V. T., & Lanzetta, J. T.The acquisition of imitative and opposition responses under two conditions of instruction induced set. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1958, 56, 516-528.
30.
Kanfer, F. H., & Duerfeldt, P. H.Learner competence, model competence and number of observation trials in vicarious learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1967, 58, 153-157.
31.
Liberman, R.Reinforcement of cohesiveness in group therapy. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1971, 25, 168-177.
32.
Lovaas, O. I., Berberich, J. P., Perloff, B. F., & Schaeffer, B.Acquisition of imitative speech by schizophrenic children. Science, 1966, 151, 705-707.
33.
Marlatt, G. A.Exposure to a model and task ambiguity as determinants of verbal behavior in an interview. Paper read at W. P. A., San Diego, April 1968. (a)
34.
Marlatt, G. A. Vicarious and direct reinforcement control of verbal behavior in an interview setting. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Indiana University, 1968. (b)
35.
Marlatt, G. A., Jacobson, E. A., Johnson, D. L., & Morrice, D. J.Effect of exposure to a model receiving evaluative feedback upon subsequent behavior in an interview. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1970, 34, 104-112.
36.
Marston, A. R.Determinants of the effects of vicarious reinforcement. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1966, 71, 550-558.
37.
Martin, H., & Shewmaker, K.Written instructions in group psychotherapy. Group Psychotherapy, 1962, 15, 24-29.
38.
Mussen, P. H., & Parker, A. L.Mother nurturance and girls' incidental imitative learning. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1965, 2, 94-97.
39.
Nash, E. H., Hoehn-Saric, R., Battle, C. C., Stone, A. R., Imber, S. D., & Frank, J. D.Systematic preparation of patients for short term psychotherapy: II. Relation to characteristics of patient therapist and psychotherapeutic process. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 1965, 140, 374-383.
40.
O'Connor, R. D.Modification of social withdrawal through symbolic modeling. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1969, 2, 15-22.
41.
Rappaport, J., Gross, T., & Lepper, C.Modeling, sensitivity training and instruction: Implications for the training of college volunteers. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1973, 37, 99-107.
42.
Rosenbaum, M. E., & Tucker, I. F.The competence of the model and the learning of imitation and nonimitation. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1962, 63, 183-190.
43.
Rosenblith, J. F.Learning by imitation in kindergarten children. Child Development, 1959, 30, 39-80.
44.
Schwartz, A. N., & Hawkins, H. L.Patient models and affect statements in group therapy. In Proceedings of the 73rd Annual Convention of APA. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association, 1965. Pp. 265-266.
45.
Snortum, J. R., & Myers, H. F.Intensity of t-group relations as a function of interaction. International Journal of Group Psychotherapy, 1971, 21, 190-201.
46.
Truax, C. B., & Carkhuff, R. R.Personality change in hospitalized mental patients during group psychotherapy as a function of alternate sessions and vicarious therapy pretraining. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 1965, 21, 225-228.
47.
Truax, C. B., & Carkhuff, R. R.Toward effective counseling and psychotherapy. Chicago: Aldine, 1967.
48.
Truax, C. B., & Wargo, D. G.Effects of therapeutic conditions, alternate sessions, vicarious therapy pretraining, and patient self-exploration on hospitalized mental patients during group therapy. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1969, 33, 440-447.
49.
Truax, C. B., Shapiro, J. G., & Wargo, D. G.Effects of alternate sessions and vicarious therapy pretraining on group psychotherapy. International Journal of Group Psychotherapy, 1968, 18, 186-198.
50.
Whalen, C.Effects of a model and instructions on group verbal behaviors. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1969, 33, 509-521.
51.
Yalom, I. D.The theory and practice of group psychotherapy. New York: Basic Books, 1970.
52.
Yalom, I. D., & Rand, K.Compatibility and cohesiveness in therapy groups. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1966, 15, 267-275.
53.
Yalom, I. D., Houts, P. S., Newell, G., & Rand, K. H.Preparation of patients for group psychotherapy. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1967, 17, 416-427.
