Previous studies using relational demography theory have hypothesized that being demographically dissimilar has a negative impact on individual perceptions of advancement opportunities. The authors investigate whether an organization’s social context, leaders’ characteristics, and geographic location offset, or even reverse, the negative effects of being dissimilar. Data were collected through two surveys: a 1995 survey of 2,252 employees from 139 treatment units in 38 Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) psychiatric hospitals, and a 1999 survey of the 38VA hospitals’ administrative offices. The authors used nested linear regression analysis to test the hypotheses. Unlike previous studies, the results indicate that the more dissimilar an individual is with regard to age andrace, the more positive his or her perceptions of advancement opportunities. They conclude that the equal employment opportunity policies pursued by public sector organizations, such as the VA, may alter the relationship between demographic dissimilarity and perceptions of advancement opportunities.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Alderfer, C. P.
(1980). Consulting to underbounded systems. In C. P. Alderfer & C. L. Cooper (Eds.), Advances in experiential social processes (Vol. 2, pp. 267-295). New York: John Wiley.
2.
Alderfer, C. P.
(1987). An intergroup perspective on group dynamics. In J. W. Lorsch (Ed.), Handbook of organizational behavior (pp. 190-222). Englewood-Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
3.
Alderfer, C. P.
, & Smith, K. K. (1982). Studying intergroup relations embedded in organizations. Administrative Science Quarterly, 27, 35-65.
4.
America R. F.
, & Anderson, B. E. (1978). Moving ahead: Black managers in business. New York: McGraw-Hill.
5.
Braddock, J. H., II
, & McPartland, J. M. (1987). How minorities continue to be excluded from equal employment opportunities: Research on labor market and institutional barriers. Journal of Social Issues,43(1), 5-39.
6.
Brewer, M. B.
(1995). Managing diversity: The role of social identity. In S. E. Jackson & M. N. Ruderman (Eds.), Diversity in work teams: Research paradigms for a changing workplace (pp. 69-96). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
7.
Davis, G.
, &Watson, G. (1982). Black life in corporate America. Garden City, NY: Anchor Press/Doubleday.
8.
Dutta Roy, D.
, & Ghose, M. (1997). Awareness of hospital environment and organizational commitment. Journal of Social Psychology, 137, 380-386.
9.
Ely, R. J.
(1994). The effects of organizational demographics and social identity on relationships among professional women. Administrative Science Quarterly, 39, 203-238.
10.
Ely, R. J.
(1995). The power in demography: Women’s social constructions of gender identity at work. Academy of Management Journal, 38, 589-634.
11.
Fernandez, J. P.
(1974). Black managers in white corporations. Springfield, VA: National Technical Information Service.
12.
Fernandez, J. P.
(1981). Racism and sexism in corporate life. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.
13.
Friedson, E.
(1970). Professional dominance. Chicago: Atherton Press.
14.
Garthwaite, P. H.
, Jolliffe, I. T., & Jones, B. (1995). Statistical inference. New York: Prentice-Hall.
15.
Jackson, S. E.
, Brett, J. F., Sessa, V. I., Cooper, D. M., Julin, J. A., & Peyronnin, K. (1991). Some differences make a difference: Individual dissimilarity and group heterogeneity as correlates of recruitment, promotions, and turnover. Journal of Applied Psychology, 76, 675-689.
16.
Jackson, S. E.
, May, K. E., & Whitney, K. (1995). Understanding the dynamics of diversity in decision-making teams. In R. A. Guzzo & E. Salas (Eds.), Team effectiveness and decision making in organizations (pp. 204-261). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
17.
Jackson, S. E.
, Stone, V. K., & Alvarez, E. B. (1992). Socialization amidst diversity: The impact of demographics on work team oldtimers and newcomers. Research in Organizational Behavior, 15, 45-109.
18.
Kanter, R. M.
(1977). Some effects of proportions on group life: Skewed sex ratios and responses to token women. American Journal of Sociology, 82, 965-990.
19.
Konrad, A.
, & Gutek, B. A. (1987). Theory and research on group composition: Applications to the status of women and ethnic minorities. In S. Oskamp & S. Spacapan (Eds.), Interpersonal processes (85-121). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
20.
Lichtenstein, R.
, Alexander, J., Jinnett, K., & Ullman, E. (1997). Embedded intergroup relations in interdisciplinary teams: Effects on perceptions of level of team integration. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 33, 413-434.
21.
Mowday, R. T.
, Porter, L. W., & Steers, R. M. (1982). Employee-organization linkages: The psychology of commitment, absenteeism, and turnover. New York: Academic Press.
22.
National Center for Health Statistics
. (1999). Health: United States, 1998. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.
23.
Northcraft, G. B.
, Polzer, J. T., Neale, M. A., & Kramer, R. M. (1995). Diversity, social identity, and performance: Emergent social dynamics in cross-functional teams. In S. E. Jackson & M. N. Ruderman (Eds.),Diversity in work teams: Research paradigms for a changing workplace (pp. 69-96). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
24.
O’Reilly, C. A.
, Caldwell, D. F., & Barnett, W. P. (1989). Work group demography, social integration, and turnover. Administrative Science Quarterly, 34(1), 21-37.
25.
Ramirez, A.
, & Soriano, F. (1982). Social power in educational systems: Its effect on Chicano’s attitudes toward the school experience. Journal of Social Psychology, 118, 113-119.
26.
Ridgeway, C. L.
(1988). Gender differences in task groups: A status and legitimacy account. In M. Webster, Jr., and M. Foschi (Eds.), Status generalization: New theory and research (pp. 188-206). Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
27.
Riordan, C. M.
, & Shore, L. M. (1997). Demographic diversity and employee attitudes: An empirical examination of relational demography within work units. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82, 342-358.
28.
Schneider, B.
(1983). Interactional psychology and organizational behavior. In L. L. Cummings & B. M. Staw (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior: An annual series of analytical essays and critical reviews (Vol. 5, pp. 1-31). Greenwich, CT: JAI.
29.
Shenhav, Y.
(1992). Entrance of blacks and women into managerial positions in scientific and engineering occupations: A longitudinal analysis. Academy of Management Journal, 35, 889-901.
30.
STATA Corporation
. (1999). STATA 6.0 [software]. College Station, TX: Author.
31.
Tajfel, H.
(1978). The achievement of group differentiation. In H. Tajfel (Ed.), Differentiation between social groups: Studies in the social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 483-507). London: Academic Press.
32.
Tajfel, H.
, & Turner, J. C. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In S. Worchel & W. G. Austin (Eds.), Psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 7-24). Chicago: Nelson-Hall.
33.
Tsui, A. S.
, Egan, T. D., & O’Reilly, C. A., II. (1992). Being different: Relational demography and organizational attachment. Administrative Science Quarterly, 37, 549-579.
34.
Tsui, A. S.
, & O’Reilly, C. A. (1989). Beyond simple demographic effects: The importance of relational demography in superior-subordinate dyads. Academy of Management Journal, 32, 402-423.
35.
Turner, J. C.
(1982). Towards a cognitive redefinition of the social group. In H. Tajfel (Ed.), Social identity and intergroup relations. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
36.
Turner, J. C.
(1984). Social identification and psychological group formation. In H. Tajfel (Ed.), The social dimension: European developments in social psychology (Vol. 2). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
37.
U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs
. (1995). Annual affirmative employment program accomplishment report for fiscal year 1994. Washington DC: Author.
38.
U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs
. (1996). Job satisfaction survey update: Report to staff. Ann Arbor, MI: Serious Mental Illness Treatment Research and Evaluation Center, Health Services Research and Development Department, Ann Arbor VA Medical Center.
39.
Wagner, W. G.
, Pfeffer, J., & O’Reilly, C. A. (1984). Organizational demography and turnover in top-management groups. Administrative Science Quarterly, 29, 74-92.
40.
Wharton, A. S.
, & Baron, J. N. (1987). So happy together? The impact of gender segregation on men at work. American Sociological Review, 52, 574-587.
41.
Wiersema, M. F.
, & Bird, A. (1993). Organizational demography in Japanese firms: Group heterogeneity, individual dissimilarity, and top management team turnover. Academy of Management Journal, 36, 996-1025.
42.
Zenger, T. R.
, & Lawrence, B. S. (1989). Organizational demography: The differential effects of age and tenure distributions on technical communication. Academy of Management Journal, 32, 353-376.
