The Simultaneous ‘Discovery’ of Internal Motions in Spiral Nebulae

Fernie J. D. , “The Historical Quest for the Nature of the Spiral Nebulae”, Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, lxxxii (1970), 1189–1230; Norriss Hetherington S. , “Adriaan van Maanen and Internal Motions in Spiral Nebulae: A Historical Review”, Quarterly journal of the Royal Astronomical Society, xiii (1972), 25–39.

Berendzen R. and Hoskin M. , “Hubble's Announcement of Cepheids in Spiral Nebulae”, Leaflets of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, June 1971; Hoskin M. A. , “Edwin Hubble and the Existence of External Galaxies”, Paper delivered at the XIIe Congrès International d'Histoire des Sciences, Paris, 1968.

Berendzen R. and Hart R. , “Adriaan van Maanen's Influence on the Island Universe Theory”, Journal for the history of astronomy, iv (1973), 46–56 and 73–98; Hart Cullen Richard , Adriaan van Maanen's influence on the island universe theory (Ph.D. dissertation, Boston University, 1973).

Kant I. , Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Himmels (Leipzig, 1755); translated by Hastie W. as Kant's cosmogony (Glasgow, 1900).

Earl of Rosse ( Parsons William ), “Observations on the Nebulae”, Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society, cxl (1850), 499–514.

Chamberlin T. C. and Moulton F. R. , “Certain Recent Attempts to Test the Nebular Hypothesis”, Science, xii (1900), 201–8. This article summarizes three previous papers: Chamberlin T. C. , “A Group of Hypotheses bearing on Climatic Changes”, Journal of geology, v (1897) 653–83; Chamberlin T. C. , “An Attempt to Test the Nebular Hypothesis by the Relations of Masses and Momenta”, Journal of geology, viii (1900), 58–73; Moulton F. R. , “An Attempt to Test the Nebular Hypothesis by an Appeal to the Laws of Dynamics”, Astrophysical journal, xi (1900), 103–30.

Slipher V. M. , “The Detection of Nebular Rotation”, Lowell Observatory bulletins, ii (1914), 66.

Gibson Charles R. , “The History of Photography”; and Davidson Rundel Charles , “Astronomical Photography”, in Photography as a scientific implement (New York, 1923), 1–34 and 209–60.

Dower F. W. , “Andrew Ainslie Common”, Monthly notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, lxix (1904), 274–8.

Common Ainslie A. , “Note on a Photograph of the Great Nebula in Orion and some new Stars near θ Orionis”, Monthly notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, xliii (1883), 255–7.

“Obituary Notices—Isaac Roberts”, Monthly notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, lxv (1905), 345–7.

Roberts Isaac , Photographs of Stars, Star-Clusters and Nebulae, ii (London, 1899), 24–26 and 63–64.

An obituary notice of Turner by Plaskett H. H. appeared in Monthly notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, xcl (1931), 321–34.

Turner H. H. , “On the Alleged Rotation of the Spiral Nebula Messier 51 Canum Venaticorum”, Monthly notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, lx (1900), 530–1.

Hastings Charles S. , “Biographical Memoir of James Edward Keeler 1857–1900”, National Academy of Sciences biographical memoirs, v (1905), 231–46; Keeler James E. , “The Crossley Reflector of the Lick Observatory”, Astrophysical journal, xi (1900), 325–49. Some of Keeler's photographs of nebulae are published in “Photographs of Nebulae and Clusters, made with the Crossley Reflector, by James Edward Keeler, Director of the Lick Observatory, 1899–1900”, Publications of the Lick Observatory, viii (1908), 1–46.

Bobone Jorge , “Charles D. Perrine”, Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, lxiii (1951), 259.

Aitken Robert G. , “Heber Doust Curtis 1872–1942”, National Academy of Sciences biographical memoirs, xxii (1943), 275–94.

Curtis Heber D. , “Changes in the Mounting of the Crossley Reflector”, Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, xxii (1910), 40–41; “Crossley Reflector Improvements”, ibid., xxv (1913), 265–6; “Improvements in the Crossley Mounting”, ibid., 46–51; “Three Interesting Spiral Nebulae”, ibid., xxiv (1912), 227–8; “Descriptions of 132 Nebulae and Clusters Photographed with the Crossley Reflector”, Lick Observatory bulletin, vii (1912), 81–84; “Descriptions of 109 Nebulae and Clusters Photographed with the Crossley Reflector: Second List”, ibid., viii (1913), 43–46.

Curtis H. D. , “Preliminary Note on Nebular Proper Motions”, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, i (1915), 10–12. See also Curtis Heber D. , “Nebular Motions”, Popular astronomy, xxiii (1915), 599–600.

Ibid.

Lowell Lawrence A. , Biography of Percival Lowell (New York, 1935), 61–66; Jones Zaban Bessie and Boyd Gifford Lyle , The Harvard College Observatory (Cambridge, Mass., 1971), 325–9.

Hall John S. , “Vesto Melvin Slipher (1875–1969)”, American Philosophical Society yearbook (1970), 161–6.

Letter from G. R. Agassiz to V. M. Slipher, 31 December 1916, Early correspondence of the Lowell Observatory 1894–1916 , microfilm edition (hereafter cited as Lowell correspondence) (Flagstaff, Arizona, 1974), roll 4, frame 588.

Letter from V. M. Slipher to G. R. Agassiz, 15 January 1917, Lowell correspondence, roll 4, frame 589.

Letter from Percival Lowell to V. M. Slipher, 29 January 1909, Lowell correspondence, roll 9, frame 394.

Letter from Percival Lowell to V. M. Slipher, 8 February 1909, Lowell correspondence, roll 9, frame 401.

Letter from V. M. Slipher to Percival Lowell, 26 February 1909, Lowell correspondence, roll 3, frame 283.

Undated handwritten note in File Slipher V. M. , Lowell Observatory Archives, Flagstaff, Arizona.

Slipher V. M. , “Spectrographic Observations of Nebulae”, Popular astronomy, xxiii (1915), 21–24. See also letters from Slipher V. M. to Percival Lowell, 3 December 1910, and from Slipher V. M. to Fath E. A. , 5 December 1910 and 8 February 1911, Lowell correspondence, roll 3, frame 348 and roll 4, frames 1038 and 1039.

Letter from V. M. Slipher to Percival Lowell, 26 September 1912, Lowell correspondence, roll 3, frame 401.

Letter from V. M. Slipher to Percival Lowell, 19 December 1912, Lowell correspondence, roll 3, frame 408.

Merton Robert K. , “Behavior Patterns of Scientists”, American scientist, lvii (1969), 1–23; see also Merton Robert K. , “Priorities in Scientific Discovery: A Chapter in the Sociology of Science”, American sociological review, xxii (1957), 635–59.

Letter from V. M. Slipher to Percival Lowell, 2 January 1913, Lowell correspondence, roll 3, frame 414.

Slipher V. M. , “The Radial Velocity of the Andromeda Nebula”, Lowell Observatory bulletin, ii (1913), 56–57.

Slipher V. M. , “The Detection of Nebular Rotation”, op. cit. (ref. 7).

The sense of rivalry with other astronomers at other institutions, apparent in Slipher's reference to impressing other observers with a velocity for the Andromeda nebula, is even more apparent in some of his other correspondence. Responding earlier to a critical note on the work at the Lowell Observatory written by William Wallace Campbell at the Lick Observatory ( Campbell W. W. , “Lick Observatory”, Outlook, xl (1908), 255–6), Slipher had proposed to Lowell: What would be the objection to me writing to Campbell and proposing that we test the two equipments by photographing with the spectrograph the same stars on the same kind of plates and developed exactly the same time and with the same developer? If he declines this proposal he practically admits he has no case. If the comparative tests are made it will then settle the matter once and for all and show that this 24-inch [at Lowell] deserves to be compared with the 36-inch [at Lick] or any other refractor. (Letter from V. M. Slipher to Percival Lowell, 13 October 1908, Lowell correspondence, roll 3, frame 244.) Lowell, however, thought that Campbell would give such good excuses for not accepting the challenge that the Lowell Observatory would lose rather than gain (letter from Percival Lowell to Slipher V. M. , 19 October 1908, Lowell correspondence, roll 3, frame 246), and he vetoed the proposed astronomical shootout in the American West.

Letter from V. M. Slipher to Max Wolf, 17 July 1914, Lowell correspondence, roll 5, frames 1450–1.

Lowell Percival , Mars as the Abode of Life (New York, 1908).

Chamberlin Thomas Rollin , “Biographical Memoir of Thomas Chrowder Chamberlin 1843–1928”, National Academy of Sciences biographical memoirs, xv (1934), 307–407.

Blackwelder Eliot , “Mars as the Abode of Life”, Science, xxix (1909), 659–61.

See T. J. J. , “Fair Play and Toleration in Science”, Science, xxix (1909), 858–60.

Moulton F. R. , “Remarks on Recent Contributions to Cosmogony”, Science, xxx (1909), 113–17.

Lowell Percival , “Mars as the Abode of Life”, Science, xxx (1909), 338–40.

Lowell Lawrence A. , Biography of Percival Lowell, op. cit. (ref. 21), 6.

Moulton F. R. , “A Reply to Dr. Percival Lowell”, Science, xxx (1909), 639–42.

Chamberlin T. C. and Moulton F. R. , “The Development of the Planetesimal Hypothesis”, Science, xxx (1909), 642–5.

Lowell's first request of Slipher for observations occurred before the quarrel began.

Chamberlin T. C. , “Fundamental Problems of Geology”, Carnegie Institution of Washington yearbook, iii (1904), 195–258.

Chamberlin T. C. , “Fundamental Problems of Geology”, Carnegie Institution of Washington xiv (1915), 368.

Chamberlin T. C. , “Fundamental Problems of Geology”, Carnegie Institution of Washington yearbook, xv (1916), 358–9.

Chamberlin T. C. , “Fundamental Problems of Geology”, Carnegie Institution of Washington yearbook, xvi (1917), 307–19.

Duncan John C. , “Carl Otto Lampland 1873–1951”, Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, lxiv (1952), 293–5.

Letter from C. O. Lampland to Percival Lowell, 12 July 1916, Lowell correspondence, roll 2, frame 655.

Letter from John C. Duncan to V. M. Slipher, 14 July 1916, Lowell correspondence, roll 4, frame 999.

Lampland C. O. , “Preliminary Measures of the Spiral Nebulae N.G.C. 5194 (M51) and N.G.C. 4254 (M99) for Proper Motion and Rotation”, Popular astronomy, xxiv (1916), 667–8.

Lampland C. O. , “On the Proper Motion of the Virgo Nebula, N.G.C. 4594”, Popular astronomy, xx (1914), 631–2; and “Observations of Nebulae for Position and Proper-Motion”, Lowell Observatory bulletin, ii (1915), 135–49; see also letter from Slipher V. M. to Agassiz G. R. , 15 January 1917, op. cit. (ref. 24).

van Maanen Adriaan , “Preliminary Evidence of Internal Motion in the Spiral Nebula Messier 101”, Astrophysical journal, xliv (1916), 210–28.

“Nineteenth Meeting of the American Astronomical Society”, Popular astronomy, xxiv (1916), 578–85.

van Maanen Adriaan , “Investigations on Proper Motion. Eleventh Paper: The Proper Motion of Messier 13 and Its Internal Motion”, Astrophysical journal, lxi (1925), 130–6.