Thinking Hattusha: Astronomy and Landscape in the Hittite Lands

A comprehensive summary of the Egyptian results can be found in Belmonte J. A. Shaltout M. Fekri M. , “Astronomy, landscape and symbolism: A study on the orientations of ancient Egyptian temples”, in In search of cosmic order: Selected essays on Egyptian archaeoastronomy, ed. by Belmonte J. A. Shaltout M. (Cairo, 2009), 211–82.

Bryce T. , The kingdom of the Hittites (King's Lynn, 2005).

See, for example, Krupp E. C. , “Bedroom politics and celestial sovereignty”, in Current studies in Archeo-astronomy, ed. by Fountain J. W. Sinclair R. M. (Durham, 2005), 413–29.

Seeher J. , Hattusha-guide, a day in the Hittite capital (Istanbul, 2006), 80.

Berndt-Ersöz S. , Phrygian rock-cut shrines (Leiden, 2006).

See Bryce T. , Life and society in the Hittite world (King's Lynn, 2002), for a discussion on the topic. For the Luwians, see Melchert H. C. (ed.), The Luwians (Boston, 2003).

On the religion of the Hittites, see Hoffner H. A. Jr , “Hittite religion”, in Encyclopedia of religion , ed. by Eliade M. , vi (Chicago, 1987), 408–14; Beckman G. M. , “The religion of the Hittites”, The biblical archaeologist , lii (1989), 98–108; Haas V. , Geschichte der hethitischen Religion (Leiden, 1994); Hutter M. , “Religion in Hittite Anatolia. Some comments on Volkert Haas: Geschichte der hethitischen Religion”, Numen , xliv (1997), 74–90; and the most recent, Taracha P. , Religions of second millennium Anatolia (Wiesbaden, 2009). For the religion of the Luwians, see Hutter M. , “Aspect of Luwian religion”, in The Luwians , ed. by Melchert (ref. 6), 211–80.

Taracha , op. cit. (ref. 7), 33.

According to Singer I. , “The thousand gods of Hatti: The limits of an expanding pantheon”, Israel oriental studies , xiv (1994), 81–102. The Hittite one was an expanding pantheon as conquests evolved in time and space. See also Taracha , op. cit. (ref. 7), 84–92.

Bryce , op. cit. (ref. 6), 139–49.

For comprehensive lists of the Hittite pantheon, see Taracha , op. cit. (ref. 7), 27–31, 39–50 and 84–95. For the Sun-goddess, see Güterbock H. G. , “The composition of Hittite prayers to the sun”, Journal of the American Oriental Society , lxxviii (1958), 237–45; Hutter , op. cit. (ref. 7, 1997), 80; and Taracha , op. cit. (ref. 7), 47–54.

Collins B. J. , The Hittites and their world (Atlanta, 2007), 174–7.

Taracha , op. cit. (ref. 7), 88–90; and Collins , op. cit. (ref. 12), 97–9.

Kellerman G. , Recherche sur les rituels de foundation hittites (Paris, 1980), 108–13. For Hattushili, see ten Cate Ph. H. J. Houwink , “The Sun God of Heaven: The assembly of the gods and the Hittite king”, in Effgies Dei: Essays on the history of religion , ed. by van der Plas D. (Leiden, 1987), 13–34.

Collins , op. cit. (ref. 12), 172. See also ten Cate Houwink , op. cit. (ref. 14).

Collins , op. cit. (ref. 12), 19. It is also worth noting that within the substitute king ritual context during a solar eclipse, at sunrise the replaced true king daily kneels before the Sun God of Heaven, praying to be relieved from his now, as an ordinary mortal, inevitable future residence among the shades: Houwink ten Cate, op. cit. (ref. 14).

Taracha , op. cit. (ref. 7), 43 and 110.

Taracha , op. cit. (ref. 7), 146.

For Shausga in general, see Burney C. , Historical dictionary of the Hittites (Lanham, 2004), 239; Bryce , op. cit. (ref. 6), 146–7; and Taracha , op. cit. (ref. 7), 119–28. For Shausga as Venus, see Krupp , op. cit. (ref. 3).

Beckman G. , “The babilili-ritual from Boǧazköy (CTH 718)”, in Recent developments in Hittite archaeology and history , ed. by Yener K. Aslihan Hoffner H. A. Jr Dhesi S. (Winona Lake, 2002), 35–42. See also Taracha , op. cit. (ref. 7), 99.

Kellerman G. , “Towards the further interpretation of the purulli-festival”, Slavica Hierosolymitana, v–vi (1981), 35–46.

For Efatun Pinar, see Collins , op. cit. (ref. 12), 192. For Yazilikaya, see Seeher , op. cit. (ref. 4), 134–66.

For a general outline of Hittite temples, see Bryce , op. cit. (ref. 6), 153–6; and Burney , op. cit. (ref. 19), 276–8.

In particular, there are two interesting foundation texts, CTH413 and CTH481, including rituals for building a temple, Kellerman , op. cit. (ref. 14).

Belmonte J. A. Molinero M. A. Miranda N. , “Unveiling Seshat: New insights into the stretching of the cord ceremony”, in In search of cosmic order, ed. by Belmonte Shaltout (ref. 1), 193–210.

See the introductory paragraph of this article. Also relevant is Haas , op. cit. (ref. 7), 619.

Bryce , op. cit. (ref. 6), 241; and Burney , op. cit. (ref. 19), 278.

The ruins of this small but important ancient village has been identified either with the sacred city of Arinna, the site of the Sun-goddess, or with the sacred city of Zippalanda, another important religious place of Hittite sacred geography. The discussion is open. See, for example, Berndt-Ersöz , op. cit. (ref. 5), 171.

Burney , op. cit. (ref. 19), 277. See also Neve P. , Hattusha information (Istanbul, 1985–87).

Cimok F. , Reliefs of Azatiwataya (Istanbul, 2008), presents an excellent edition of the reliefs of Karatepe monumental gates.

Taracha , op. cit. (ref. 7), 135.

Berndt-Ersöz , op. cit. (ref. 5), 171–2. For Mount Tudhaliya, see Kellerman , op. cit. (ref. 14), 104.

Bryce , op. cit. (ref. 6), 154.

Cohen M. E. , The cultic calendars of the ancient Near East (Maryland, 1993).

Taggar-Cohen A. , Hittite priesthood (Heidelberg, 2006), 117.

Taggar-Cohen , op. cit. (ref. 35), 181–2. The mention of the Pleiades in connection to the rituals celebrated during the purulli festival could also be relevant: Kellerman, op. cit. (ref. 21). For a complete summary of the different classes of Hittite priests and priestesses and their functions, see Taggar-Cohen , op. cit. (ref. 35), 435–44.

Taracha , op. cit. (ref. 7), 61 and 70–4; and Taggar-Cohen , op. cit. (ref. 35), 72.

Bryce , op. cit. (ref. 6), 188.

Güterbock H. G. , “An outline of the Hittite AN.TAH.SUM festival”, Journal of Near Eastern studies , xix (1960), 80–9; Güterbock H. G. , “Some aspects of Hittite festivals”, in Actes de la xvii Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale , ed. by Finet A. (Brussels, 1970), 175–80; ten Cate Ph. H. J. Houwink , “Brief comments on the Hittite cult calendar: The outline of the AN.TAH. SUM festival”, Assyriological studies , xxiii (1986), 95–110.

Taggar-Cohen , op. cit. (ref. 35), 336; and Taracha , op. cit. (ref. 7), 139. See also ten Cate Ph. H. J. Houwink , “Brief comments on the Hittite cult calendar: The recension of the outline of the nuntarriyashas festival, especially days 8–12 and 15–22”, in Documentum Asiae Minoris antiquae , ed. by Neu E. Rüster C. (Weisbaden, 1988), 167–94.

Güterbock , op. cit. (ref. 39); and Taracha , op. cit. (ref. 7), 139. The exact location of the hešta-house is a matter of debate. Several authors located it within the acropolis of Hattusha in Büyyükkale (see Fig. 6), while others have suggested the open-air sanctuary of Yazilikaya. In this respect, the procession of gods and goddesses in Hall A of the sanctuary has frequently been related to the ceremonies of the New Year. See Krupp , op. cit. (ref. 3). As we will see in Section 1.4, this idea has been put aside today by the majority of the specialists. See Burney , op. cit. (ref. 19), 321. However , see ref. 61.

ten Cate Houwink , op. cit. (ref. 40); and Taggar-Cohen , op. cit. (ref. 35), 118.

Singer I. , The Hittite KI.LAM festival (Wiesbaden, 1983–84). See also Taggar-Cohen , op. cit. (ref. 35), 336; and ten Cate Houwink , op. cit. (ref. 40).

Hoffner H. A. Jr , Hittite myths (Atlanta, 1998), 11–12.

Hutter , op. cit. (ref. 7, 1997); and Kellerman , op. cit. (ref. 21).

Taggar-Cohen , op. cit. (ref. 35), 35.

Taggar-Cohen , op. cit. (ref. 35), 302; and Hutter , op. cit. (ref. 7, 1997).

Taracha , op. cit. (ref. 7), 29; and Popko M. , “Zum Tempel der Sonnengöttin von Arinna in Hattuša”, Altorientalische Forschungen , xxx (2003), 11–17.

Taggar-Cohen , op. cit. (ref. 35), 121.

Taracha , op. cit. (ref. 7), 137. The words of Tudhaliya I V, “I shall never omit the festivals again nor shall I interchange the festivals and celebrate them at the right time”, could be mentioned in this particular context: Houwink ten Cate, op. cit. (ref. 39).

Taracha , op. cit. (ref. 7), 70 and 136.

See, for example, Hoskin M. , Tombs, temples and their orientation: A new perspective on Mediterranean prehistory (Bognor Regis, 2001).

Bryce , op. cit. (ref. 6), 179. There exist, however, the exceptional high-rank proto-Hittite tombs of Alaca Hüyük, where the bronze astral representations of Fig. 2 were discovered. Interestingly, our own preliminary data on site show a main axis for all these tombs orientated within the solar range.

Bryce , op. cit. (ref. 6), 178–9.

Collins , op. cit. (ref. 12), 193–4; and Taracha , op. cit. (ref. 7), 162.

van de Hout T. , “Tombs and memorials: The (divine) Stone-house and hegur reconsidered”, in Recent developments in Hittite archaeology and history , ed. by Yener Aslihan Hoffner Dhesi (ref. 20), 73–92. See also Taracha , op. cit. (ref. 7), 134.

Taracha , op. cit. (ref. 7), 164–5.

Lumsden S. , “Gavurkalesi: Investigations at a Hittite sacred place”, in Recent developments in Hittite archaeology and history, ed. by Yener Aslihan Hoffner Dhesi (ref. 20), 111–26.

Taracha , op. cit. (ref. 7), 166. It has been suggested that the rocky-outcrops of Sarikale (much altered by later constructions) and Yenicekale, in Hattusha Upper City, could also be hekur-peak sanctuaries of other Hittite kings, see Seeher , op. cit. (ref. 4), 59.

Seeher , op. cit. (ref. 4), 98–106.

Burney , op. cit. (ref. 19), 321. Also relevant is Taracha , op. cit. (ref. 7), 92–5. The idea that Yazilikaya could indeed have been a multi-purpose sacred place has been nicely expressed by E. Krupp in his criticism of this paper: “I think I understand the current rejection by specialists of a connection between Yazilikaya and the New Year Festival, but I am suspicious this may be the product of typically fashionable reconsiderations that emphasize a particular component of the data at the expense of the other as one time and group of experts is replaced by another. The royal mortuary dimension of Yazilikaya and its underworld connotations neither contradict nor exclude the themes associated with renewal, regeneration, and New Year. The multiple components of Yazilikaya — Architecturally, icongraphically, and physically — Suggest caution. So much about Hittite ideology is obscure and complex; and it would be odd if Yazilikaya were simple. It isn't. Dismissal of any New Year connotation requires a powerful alternative explanation of the presence of a procession of the gods in the rather remarkable mobilization they display. The iconography has a focus that is indicated by the size of figures and their location. Those details must also be related to theme. The king, dead or alive, does not seem to play a role in the action on the main panel in Chamber A. How have the revisionists dealt with the text that has the gods assembling at the New Year?”.

Taggar-Cohen , op. cit. (ref. 35), 148 and 271.

Taracha , op. cit. (ref. 7), 166.

Taracha , op. cit. (ref. 7), 83.

Taracha , op. cit. (ref. 7), 63–6.

For Sarissa temple maps, see Müller-Karpe A. , “Kuakli-Sarissa: A Hittite town in the Upper Land”, in Recent developments in Hittite archaeology and history , ed. by Yener Aslihan Hoffner Dhesi (ref. 20), 145–56. We would like to point out that direct measurements on Google Earth maps could also be useful if high resolution images were available (which is not always the case) for certain locations. However, Anatolian topography is so rough and complicated that, in most cases, the measurement of angular height becomes a crucial aspect for the correct interpretation of the data (see column 6 of Table 1). Indeed, in the case of Sarissa, we could not rely on the angular height information and its data should be considered as preliminary.

Seeher , op. cit. (ref. 4), 62–8, illustrates the more than probable religious signifcance of Yerkapi, the Sphinx Gate, in Hattusha.

Magnetic anomalies are not expected in central Anatolia, where most of the terrain is limestone. In any case, the temples were mostly measured along their main axis, from inside the sanctuary to the outermost gate and, on several occasions and always for monumental gates, also in the opposite direction, with checks for possible anomalies in the measurement.

Taggar-Cohen , op. cit. (ref. 35), 9.

Taracha , op. cit. (ref. 7), 65 and 135; and Taggar-Cohen , op. cit. (ref. 35), 115.

Süel A. , “Ortaköy-Šapinuwa”, in Recent developments in Hittite archaeology and history, ed. by Yener Aslihan Hoffner Dhesi (ref. 20), 145–56.

The mean is first computed and subtracted from the data. Then, the data are normalized with the standard deviation of the measurements. Any peak rising above the 3s level could be considered as having a 99% degree of confidence. Peaks between 0 and 3s would be real (our data have no noise) but should be treated with more caution and will not be considered in our analysis unless strictly necessary.

And for nearly all the Hittite period if the errors are considered. Curiously, most of these peaks were also found in the study of Egyptian temples, see Belmonte , op. cit. (ref. 1), Fig. 8.12.

Güterbock , op. cit. (ref. 11), 241. See also Güterbock H. G. , “An addition to the prayer of Mursili to the Sun-goddess and its implications”, Anatolian studies , xxx (1980), 41–50.

Seeher , op. cit. (ref. 4), 157.

A burial-monument-solstitial connection has recently being established for another sophisticated ancient Anatolian mausoleum, the hierothesion of Antiochos I of Commagene, see Belmonte J. A. García A. C. González ; “Antiochos's hierothesion at Nemrud Dag re-visited: Adjusting the date in the light of new astronomical evidence”, Journal for the history of astronomy, xli (2010), 469–81.

Taracha , op. cit. (ref. 7), 133–4.

Notably the purulli. See Burney , op. cit. (ref. 19), 53.

As suggested by Neve , op. cit. (ref. 29). See also Berndt-Ersöz , op. cit. (ref. 4), 149–50. However, our own data show that this is not exactly true, since the convergence of the three axes is not precise and occurs in a wide area close to the ruins of the Byzantine church (near number ‘8’ in the plan of Fig. 6).

A similar reasoning could have been applied for the fall equinox and the classical date of Celtic Samhain in the case of the nuntarriyashas festival. On this occasion, however, according to our data (from inside, see Table 1), the orientation of the Lion and King Gates does not offer such similar values of the declination (–12 1/4° versus −14°, respectively). Anyway, a celebration of the nuntarriyashas festival in the 40 days elapsing from the fall equinox to the beginning of November is perfectly reasonable with the time “when the king returns from the battlefeld” at the end of the summer campaigns. As a matter of fact, astronomy suggests that the monumental gates of Hattusha Upper City could have been involved in the ritual related to major Hittite festivals.

See Belmonte , op. cit. (ref. 1), Fig. 8.15. Also relevant is Belmonte J. A. , “Mediterranean archaeotopography and archaeoastronomy: Two examples of dolmenic necropolises in the Jordan Valley”, Archaeoastronomy (JHA), no. 29 (1997), S37–43.

For the Egyptians, see Lull J. Belmonte J. A. , “The constellations of ancient Egypt”, in In search of cosmic order: Selected essays on Egyptian archaeoastronomy , ed. by Belmonte Shaltout (ref. 1), 155–94. For Mesopotamia, see Rogers J. , “Origins of the ancient constellations, Parts I and II”, Journal of the British Astronomical Association , cviii (1998), 9–28 and 79–89, and references therein. Finally, for the Achaeans: Homer, Iliad, Chant xviii.8–9, is the obvious reference.

In the case of Chamber 2, the achievement would be double since King Suppiluliuma II could have entered the realm of the Sun God of Heaven by crossing the backstone towards the noon-culminating sun. A similar interpretation might then be given to the reliefs of the southern natural-rock wall of Gavurkalesi where a suspected image of an unknown king is addressing the Sun-goddess of Arinna (see Table 1).

The study of some myths, like the one of the fght between the serpent Illuyanka and the Storm-god of Hatti, within the frame of the purulli festival, could also be relevant in the context of the northern constellations, where the celestial serpent Draco might be connected with Illuyanka; see Bryce , op. cit. (ref. 6), 215–16.

Burney , op. cit. (ref. 19), 276–8.

Young D. S. , Gordion, aux fouilles et au musée (Ankara, 1975).

Berndt-Ersöz , op. cit. (ref. 4), 16–19.

Berndt-Ersöz , op. cit. (ref. 4), 127–8, 141 and 179, respectively.

Berndt-Ersöz's work, op. cit. (ref. 4), 314–23, offers a detailed selection of maps where Phrygian monuments can be easily looked for and identifed.

The step monuments at Karahisar (see Fig. 8) may even show a double Hittite-Phrygian nature.

Berndt-Ersöz , op. cit. (ref. 4), 163.

Indeed Berndt-Ersöz , op. cit. (ref. 4), and references therein, should be a perfect feldwork assistant.

Due to the authors' ignorance of Hittite language(s), we are possibly losing some relevant information that a direct reading of the texts may perhaps offer. However, we expect that our new way of looking at the texts may encourage dedicated Hittitologists to carry on further with new and suggestive interpretations of specific paragraphs of ancient texts.

For Sarissa, see Müller-Karpe , op. cit. (ref. 66), and references therein. For the temples of Nesha, see Singer , op. cit. (ref. 9), 85.

Such as the monuments of the Neo-Hittite kingdoms. See Aro S. , “Art and architecture”, in The Luwians, ed. by Melchert (ref. 6), 281–333. Also interesting is: http://www.hittitemonuments.com/.